CONTROL OF SCATTERED

RADIATION

Presented by : Saroj Poudel

BSc . MIT 1st year
National Medical College & Teaching Hospital
PRODUCTION OF PRIMARY X-RAYS
 Electrons are emitted from hot cathode
by thermo-ionic emission.
 These electrons are accelerated by a high
P.D in the range of KV between anode
and cathode.
 Fast moving electrons strike the focal
track of the target and x-rays are
produced.
 There are 5 basic interaction between x-rays and
matter:
 Coherent scattering : radiation undergoes a
change in direction without a change in
wavelength
 Compton scattering : almost all scattering in
diagnostic radiology comes from Compton
scattering
 Photoelectric effect : production of
radiographs by photoelectric absorption
of x-rays into the tissues, no scattering
 Pair production : doesn’t occur in
diagnostic radiology, needs incident
photon energies at least 1.02 MeV
 Photodisintegration : doesn’t occur in
diagnostic radiology, needs incident
photon energies at least 7 MeV
 SCATTER RADIATION
 Scatter radiation -radiation which changes
in direction as a result of interaction with
some medium
 Some of the photon’s energy is absorbed,
leaving the resultant photon with a change
in its direction and with less energy
 These scattered photons degrades
contrast of the image and also increase
the patient dose
 The scattered photons detected in the
image are primarily forward directed
and thus have energies and angles of
incidence near those of the primary X-
rays
 Production of the scattered radiation
 Three kinds of x-rays are responsible for the optical
density, or degree of blackening on a radiograph.
• Those that pass through the patient without
interacting called remnant ray which are image
forming x-rays
• Those that are scattered through Compton
interaction
• Those which undergo photoelectric absorption
 Even under the most favorable
conditions, most of the remnant x-rays
are scattered
 Scatter radiations are produced by the
Compton interaction of x-ray beam with
the tissues present in the patient
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO AN
INCREASE IN SCATTER RADIATION
 3 factors contribute to an increase in the
amount of scattered radiation :
KVp
Increased x-ray field
Increased patient thickness
 KVp
 Affects the penetrability of the beam.
 Higher kVp, more photons go through
patient to the IR, less absorbed by patient,
higher scatter and less contrast on image
 Lower the kVp, increase in dose absorbed
by patient, less fog on film, more contrasty
image
 As x-ray energy increases, the relative number
of x-rays that undergo compton scattering
increases
 The absolute number of the Compton
interactions decrease with increasing energies
but the number of photoelectric interactions
decreases more rapidly
 FIELD SIZE
 Has a significant impact on scatter radiation.
 Field size is computed in square inches or square cm
 As field size increases, intensity of scatter radiation
also increases rapidly. Especially during fluoroscopy
 The relative intensity of the scatter varies more when
the field size is small than when the field is large.
 When the field size is reduced, the resulting
reduction in scatter will reduce the density on the
image
 The mAs must be
increased to maintain
density.
 The reduced scatter will
improve contrast
resolution resulting in
improved image quality.
 PATIENT OR PART THICKNESS
 The relative intensity of scatter radiation increases
with increasing thickness of the anatomy.
 As tissue thickness increases, more of the rays go
through multiple scattering
 Normally body thickness is out of our control but we
can change the method of imaging to improve image
quality.
 With obese patients, tissue thickness is reduced
when taking the film recumbent due to compression.
Scatter increases as the patient thickness increases
 Effects of Scattered Radiation
 2 principal characteristics of any image are
Spatial : Determined by focal-spot size and
other factors that contribute to blur.
Contrast Resolution : Determined by scatter
radiation and other sources of radiographic
noise.
 Reduces radiographic contrast by adding a
general background radiation over the entire
image
 Because the photons have changed direction,
they no longer rely the anatomical information
to the image receptors. They do not provide
diagnostic information
 Control of Scattered Radiation
 Ideally, only those x-rays that do not interact with the
patient should reach the IR
 However, scatter radiation is a factor that must be
managed
 The three following complimentary points to be
considered :
Reduce the amount of scattered radiation produced
Reduce the amount of scattered radiation reaching the
film
Reduce the effect of scattered radiation on the film
 Technologists routinely use two types of
devices to reduce the amount of secondary
and scatter radiation reaching the IR
Beam restrictors : reduces the production of
scattered radiation
Grids : reduces the amount of scattered
reaching the film
 Beam Restrictors
Also known as beam limiting devices.
These include :
 Filters
 Diaphragms
 cones
 Variable aperture collimators
 Limitations of Beam Restrictors
 Beam-restricting devices effects what reaches
the patient
 Are helpful to improve contrast resolution
however the inherent problem is they are
placed between the source and the patient.
 Even under the most favorable conditions,
most of the remnant x-rays are scattered
 GRIDS
 Extremely effective means for reducing scatter
radiation that reaches the image receptor
 Made up of radiopaque material (grid strips) and
radiolucent material (interspace material)
 Positioned between the patient and the image
receptor
 Transmit the x ray that are in the straight line
from the source to the IR.
 Increase radiation exposure
 HISTORY
 Invented in 1913 by Gustav Bucky
 Framework of lead foil strips , parallel and
equidistant to each other

 Hollis Potter in 1920

 Invented a mechanism for suspending the grid in a
framework that moved between the patient and film
 Motion eliminates grid lines
 PRINCIPLE
 When the primary beam
interact with the patient
body, the scattered radiation
are produced that may or
may not be absorbed
depending on angle of
incidence and physical
characteristic of the grid
If the angle of scattered beam:
Greater enough to interact lead strip, it
is absorbed
Slightly only it will get transmitted as
the primary beam

 Grids remove scatter radiation before it

reaches the film, therefore it improves
contrast
 GRID CONSTRUCTION
 Grid ratio

 Grid frequency

 Interspace material

 Grid strips
 GRID RATIO
 Three dimensions of the grid are
 1. thickness of the grid strip (T) 2.width of the
interspace material(D) and 3. height of the grid (h).
 G.R=h/D
 Determines how much scatter radiation is “cleaned
up”
 Higher G.R. – more cleaned up –requires more
technique- more pt. dose
 G.R. ranges from 5:1 to 16:1
 High ratio grids are used in high KVp
radiography
 In general radiography 8:1 to 10:1
 In mammography 5:1 or 4:1
 A 5:1 grid cleans up approx. 85% of scatter
radiation
 Whether 16:1 grid may clean up as much as
97%.
GRID FREQUENCY
 No of grid strips per centimeter
 Range :60-200 lines per cm in most cases
 In case of mammographic grids have
frequencies of 80lines/cm in 4:1 or 5:1
grid ratio of grid
 High frequency grid show less distinct grid
line on radiograph but is costly
 GRID STRIPS
 Lead is widely used material because of high
atomic no. , high mass density and relatively
inexpensive
 Tungsten, platinum, gold and uranium can also
be used but none of them has overall desirable
characteristics
 Must be as thin as possible and have high
absorption properties
 Height varies from 2mm-5mm
 INTERSPACE MATERIAL
 Spacing b/n lead strips and made up of
plastic fibers or Al
 Width varies from 250-350mm
 Due to the non- hygroscopic nature and
easier to form and roll into sheets of
precise thickness Al is adventitious than
plastic fibers.
GRID PERFORMANCE

 Contrast improvement factor

 Bucky factor
 Selectivity
 CONTRAST IMPROVEMENT FACTOR
 Measures improvement in image quality when grid is
used
 Grid ratio does not reveal the ability of the grid that how
much image contrast is improved than non grid
 Contrast improvement factor compares contrast
improvement of a radiograph with a grid to that
without a grid
 Represented by letter “K”
 Contrast improvement factor of 1 indicates no
improvement
 Contrast Improvement Factor Equation
 K = Radiographic contrast with grid
Radiographic contrast without grid
 Most grids have a contrast improvement of 1.5 - 2.5
 Contrast improvement is higher with higher ratio
grids
 K is the complex function of
X ray emission spectrum
Patient thickness
Tissue irradiated
 BUCKY FACTOR
 Also called grid factor
 Bucky factor will increase with increase in grid
ratio
 B = Patient dose with grid
Patient dose without grid
 The amount of radiation hitting the grid will
always be greater than the amount hitting the
film
 General Rules Of Grid Characteristics
 High ratio grids have high contrast improvement
factor
 High frequency grids have thin strips of
interspace material
 Heavy grids have high selectivity and high
contrast improvement factors – the heavier a
grid is the more lead it contains the higher its
selectivity and the more efficient is in cleaning
up scatter radiation
 GRID SELECTIVITY
 Primarily a function of the construction characteristic
of a grid than the characteristic of the x ray beam
 Not the case of the contrast improvement factor
 Related to grid ratio but the total lead content of the
grid has an influence on selectivity
 Represented by Greek sigma(∑)
 ∑= Primary radiation transmitted through grid
Scatter radiation transmitted through grid
 IDEAL GRID
 passes all primary photons
• photons coming from focal
spot
 blocks all secondary photons
• photons not coming from
focal spot
GRID TYPES
 linear
Parallel grid
Crossed grid
 Focused grid
 Moving grid
single stroke
reciprocating grid
oscillating grid
 Mammographic grids
 PARALLEL GRID
 Simplest type
 All grid strips are parallel to
each other
 Cleans up scatter radiation
along the axis of the grid
 More primary radiation cutoff
 OD along the center is more than the side of the
IR
 Not useful for
Large area image receptor
Short SID
 Parallel grids only reduce scatter in the
direction of the grid lines.
 CROSSED GRID
 Two linear grids at right angles to each other
 Used for high contrast studies
 More efficient in cleanup of scatter radiation
 Must be centered exactly
 Higher contrast improvement factor than a
parallel grid of twice the grid ratio
 Advantage increase as operating kVp increase
DISADVANTAGES OF CROSSED GRID
 Grid cut off is the primary disadvantage of a
crossed grid
 The central ray must be perfectly aligned
with the center of the grid
 Tube can not be angled unless x ray tube and
table are properly aligned
 High exposure technique required
 FOCUSED GRID
 Designed to minimize grid cut off
 Lead strips lie on the imaginary radial
lines of a circle centered at the focal
spot so they can coincide with the
divergence of the x ray beam
 If properly positioned ,no grid cutoff
 More difficult to manufacture than parallel
 MOVING GRID
 Invented by HOLLIS E. POTTER
in 1920
 Placed in holding mechanism
that begins moving just before
x-ray exposure and continues
moving after end of exposure
 Moves 1-3 inches
 Motion blurs out the grid
strips
SINGLE STROKE
 Antiquated /Old fashioned
 Grid had to be cocked with a spring
mechanism
 Worked in synch with exposure time
 The mechanism moved once throughout
exposure
 Had to be reset for each exposure
RECIPROCATING GRID
 Moves back and forth during exposure
 Motor driven
 Does not have to be reset for each
exposure
 The distance of drive is approx. 2cm
 OSCILLATING GRID
 Moves in a circular motion as opposed to back and
forth
 Delicate , Springlike devices located in the four
corners hold the grid centered within the frame
 A powerful electromagnet pulls the grid to one
side and releases it at the beginning of the
exposure
 The grid oscillates in a circular fashion around the
grid frame, coming to rest after 20-30 secs
 MAMMOGRAPHIC GRIDS
 Moving grid with ratio of 4:1 to 5:1
 Grid frequencies of 30-40 lines /cm
 Does not compromise spatial resolution but
increases pt. dose
 4:1 ratio grid doubles the pt. dose compared
to non grid contact mammography
 Bucky factor:2-3
 HIGH TRANSMISSION CELLULAR GRID
(HTC)
 Reduces scatter radiation in
the two directions
 Grid strips-copper
 Interspace material-air
 Physical dimensions-3.8:1
 MOVING GRIDS
Advantages
 No grid lines
 Problems occur infrequently
Disadvantages
 Mechanical problems may occur
 Very infrequently, motion is detected on
radiograph
 GRID PROBLEMS
 Most frequent error – improper positioning
 For correct functioning, precisely positioned in relative
to the x ray tube target and central ray of the x ray beam
 Problems associated with focused grid
off-level
off- center
off- focus
upside down
off-center ,off-focus
 OFF LEVEL GRID
 Improper positioned x-ray tube not
the grid
 May occur during the grid tilting
during horizontal beam or in mobile
radiography
 Central rays incident on the grid at an
angle
 Grid cutoff will occur reducing OD
 OFF-CENTER GRID
 If the central ray is not properly
centered to the centermost
interspace of the grid i.e. lateral
shifting of grid
 Common problem with mobile x-
ray tables or ceiling suspended
tubes
 Arises due to improper tube
position
 Also called lateral decentering
 OFF-FOCUS GRID
 Unspecified SIDs selection in case of the
focused grid
 Major problem with high ratio grids.
 Grid cutoff occurs if distance increases
 Grid cut off more severe at the edge
than the centre
 180 cm is for all chest and 100cm for
all table radiography
 UPSIDE DOWN GRID
 Major grid problem but will be
noticed easily
 Complete grid cut off occurs
except in the region of central ray
 Radiation will pass through the
grid along central axis where the
grid strips are most perpendicular
COMBINED OFF-CENTER AND OFF-FOCUS
GRID
 Most common improper grid position
 Mostly occurs during mobile radiography
 Resultant radiograph with dark on one side
and light on the other i. e. uneven exposure
 Can be easily recognized
 GRID ERRORS
Off level Grid cut off across entire image,
light image
Off center Grid cut off across entire image,
light image
Off focus Cutoff toward the edge of the
image
Upside down Severe cutoff toward the edge
of the image
Off focus & off center Dark on one side & light on the
other
 GRID SELECTION
 Do not use the grid for children
 Grid can be used if thickness is >10cm
 Moving grid is the best than stationary grid
 Moving grid with focused grid strips is
common than parallel one
 Up to 8:1 ratio is good for <90 KVp used and
more than 8:1 is good for >90KVp
 GRID SELECTION FACTOR
 Patient dose increases with increasing grid
ratio
 High ratio grids are used for high kVp
examinations
 Patient dose at high kVp is less than that
at low kVp
 PATIENT DOSE
 Moving grid increases pt. dose by 15% than the
stationary
 The use of high KVp and high- ratio grids results in
lower patient doses and equal image quality than
the use of low-KVp and low-ratio grid
Disadvantages of using grid
 Increase patient dose
 Increased radiographic technique required
(Usually mAs than kVp)
AUXILLARY METHODS TO CONTROL
SCATTERED RADIATION

Two methods
 Air gap technique
 Compression technique
 AIR GAP TECHNIQUE
 Alternative to gird use
 Equal to approximately 8:1 grid
 Increases magnification so
distance can be increased to
overcome magnification
 Not effective with high KVp
 COMPRESSION
Compression devices are
used because;
 Improves spatial resolution
 Reduces OID
 Reduce patient dose
 Improves contrast
resolution
REFRENCES
 Radiologic science for technologists
 Chesney equipment
 bushong 11th edition
THANK
YOU