Introduction

INTRODUCTION
What is Data?
Collection of facts
What is Database?
Collection of data which contains information
relevant to an enterprise.
For Example:
 Banking: all transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Online retailers: order tracking, customized
recommendations
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders,
supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries,
tax deductions
What is Database Management System (DBMS)?
DBMS contains information about a particular
enterprise
 Collection of interrelated data
 Set of programs to access the data
 An environment that is both convenient and
efficient to use
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
 Purpose of Database Systems
 View of Data
 Database Languages
 Relational Databases
 Database Design
 Object-based and semistructured databases
 Data Storage and Querying
 Transaction Management
 Database Architecture
 Database Users and Administrators
 Overall Structure
 History of Database Systems
 Purpose of Database Systems
 In the early days, database applications were built
directly on top of file systems
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
 Data redundancy and inconsistency
 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in
different files
 Difficulty in accessing data
 Need to write a new program to carry out each
new task
 Data isolation — multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
 Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0)
become “buried” in program code rather than
being stated explicitly
 Hard to add new constraints or change existing
ones
 Purpose of Database Systems
(Cont.)
 Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
 Atomicity of updates
 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state
with partial updates carried out
 Example: Transfer of funds from one account to
another should either complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
 Concurrent accessed needed for performance
 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to
inconsistencies
– Example: Two people reading a balance and
updating it at the same time
 Security problems
 Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
 Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
 Levels of Abstraction
 Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is
stored.
 Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the
relationships among the data.
type customer = record
customer_id : string;
customer_name : string;
customer_street : string;
customer_city : integer;
end;
 View level: application programs hide details of data
types. Views can also hide information (such as an
employee’s salary) for security purposes.
 View of Data

An architecture for a database system

 Instances and Schemas
 Similar to types and variables in programming languages
 Schema – the logical structure of the database
 Example: The database consists of information about a set of
customers and accounts and the relationship between them)
 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
 Physical schema : database design at the physical level
 Logical schema : database design at the logical level
 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point
in time
 Analogous to the value of a variable
 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical
schema without changing the logical schema
 Applications depend on the logical schema
 In general, the interfaces between the various levels and
components should be well defined so that changes in some
parts do not seriously influence others.
 Data Models
 What is Data Model?
collection of tools for describing
 Data
 Data relationships
 Data semantics
 Data constraints

 Types of Data Models:

1. Relational model
2. Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database
design)
3. Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-
relational)
4. Semistructured data model (XML)
5. Other older models:
 Network model
 Hierarchical model
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Language for accessing and manipulating the data
organized by the appropriate data model
 DML also known as query language
 Two classes of languages
 Procedural – user specifies what data is required and
how to get those data
 Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what
data is required without specifying how to get those
data
 SQL is the most widely used query language
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table account (
account-number char(10),
balance integer)
 DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data
dictionary
 Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
 Database schema
 Data storage and definition language
 Specifies the storage structure and access methods
used
 Integrity constraints
 Domain constraints
 Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL)
 Assertions
 Authorization
 Relational Model
Attributes
 Example of tabular data in the relational model
A Sample Relational Database
 SQL
 SQL: widely used non-procedural language
 Example: Find the name of the customer with customer-id
192-83-7465
select customer.customer_name
from customer
where customer.customer_id = ‘192-83-7465’
 Example: Find the balances of all accounts held by the
customer with customer-id 192-83-7465
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer_id = ‘192-83-7465’
and
depositor.account_number =
account.account_number
 Application programs generally access databases through one of
 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow
SQL queries to be sent to a database
 Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:

 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database

design requires that we find a “good” collection of relation
schemas.
 Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should
we have and how should the attributes be distributed among
the various relation schemas?

 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

 The Entity-Relationship Model
 Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and
relationships
 Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is
distinguishable from other objects
 Described by a set of attributes
 Relationship: an association among several entities
 Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship
diagram:
 Object-Relational Data Models
 Extend the relational data model by including object
orientation and constructs to deal with added data
types.
 Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types,
including non-atomic values such as nested relations.
 Preserve relational foundations, in particular the
declarative access to data, while extending modeling
power.
 Provide upward compatibility with existing relational
languages.
XML: Extensible Markup Language
 Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
 Originally intended as a document markup language
not a database language
 The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested
tag structures made XML a great way to exchange
data, not just documents
 XML has become the basis for all new generation
data interchange formats.
 A wide variety of tools is available for parsing,
browsing and querying XML documents/data
 Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact
with
the system
 Application programmers – interact with system through
DML calls
 Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query
language
 Specialized users – write specialized database
applications that do not fit into the traditional data
processing framework
 Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application
programs that have been written previously
 Examples, people accessing database over the web,
bank tellers, clerical staff
 Database Administrator
 Coordinates all the activities of the database
system; the database administrator has a good
understanding of the enterprise’s information
resources and needs.
 Database administrator's duties include:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access method definition
 Schema and physical organization modification
 Granting user authority to access the database
 Specifying integrity constraints
 Acting as liaison with users
 Monitoring performance and responding to
changes in requirements
 Query Processing

1. Parsing and translation

2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
 Query Processing (Cont.)
 Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
 Equivalent expressions
 Different algorithms for each operation
 Cost difference between a good and a bad way of
evaluating a query can be enormous
 Need to estimate the cost of operations
 Depends critically on statistical information about
relations which the database must maintain
 Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to
compute cost of complex expressions
 Storage Management
 Storage manager is a program module that provides the
interface between the low-level data stored in the
database and the application programs and queries
submitted to the system.
 The storage manager is responsible to the following
tasks:
 Interaction with the file manager
 Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
 Issues:
 Storage access
 File organization
 Indexing and hashing
 Transaction Management
 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs
a single logical function in a database application
 Transaction-management component ensures that the
database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite
system failures (e.g., power failures and operating
system crashes) and transaction failures.
 Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction
among the concurrent transactions, to ensure the
consistency of the database.
 Database Architecture

The architecture of a database systems is greatly

influenced by
the underlying computer system on which the database is
running:
 Centralized
 Client-server
 Parallel (multi-processor)
 Distributed
Overall System Structure
 History of Database Systems
 1950s and early 1960s:
 Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
 Tapes provide only sequential access
 Punched cards for input
 Late 1960s and 1970s:
 Hard disks allow direct access to data
 Network and hierarchical data models in widespread
use
 Ted Codd defines the relational data model
 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
 IBM Research begins System R prototype
 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
 High-performance (for the era) transaction
processing
 Magnetic tape Hard disk
Magnetic tape unit
 History (cont.)
 1980s:
 Research relational prototypes evolve into
commercial systems
 SQL becomes industrial standard
 Parallel and distributed database systems
 Object-oriented database systems
 1990s:
 Large decision support and data-mining applications
 Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
 Emergence of Web commerce
 2000s:
 XML and XQuery standards
 Automated database administration