Optical Fiber Communications

Module 3
FIBER COUPLERS AND CONNECTORS

By
Dr. Venkateswara Rao kolli
Assistant Professor
ECE,MCE.
Syllabus
Unit – 5. FIBER COUPLERS AND CONNECTORS:

1.Introduction,

2.Fiber alignment and joint loss,

3.Single mode fiber joints,

4.Fiber splices,

5.Fiber connectors and fiber couplers.

6. [Self learning: Fiber splices]

 1.Introduction
The two major categories of fiber joint currently in both use and
development. These are as follows:
1. Fiber splices. These are semi permanent or permanent joints which find
major use in most optical fiber telecommunication systems (analogous to
electrical soldered joints).
2. Demountable fiber connectors or simple connectors.
These are removable joints which allow easy, fast, manual coupling and
uncoupling of fibers (analogous to electrical plugs and sockets).

• These fiber–fiber joints are designed ideally to couple all the light
propagating in one fiber into the adjoining fiber.
• By contrast fiber couplers are branching devices that split all the light from
a main fiber into two or more fibers or, alternatively,
• Couple a proportion of the light propagating in the main fiber into a
branch fiber.
 2.Fiber alignment and joint loss
A major consideration with all types of fiber–fiber connection is the optical loss
encountered at the interface.
When the two jointed fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to the fiber
axes, and the two fiber axes are perfectly aligned, a small proportion of the light
may be reflected back into the transmitting fiber causing attenuation at the
joint.
This phenomenon, known as Fresnel reflection, is associated with the step
changes in refractive index at the jointed interface (i.e. glass–air–glass).
The magnitude of this partial reflection of the light transmitted through the
interface may be estimated using the classical Fresnel formula for light of
normal incidence and is given by

The loss in decibels due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface is given by:

where r is the fraction of the light reflected at a single interface, n 1 is the refractive
index of the fiber core and n is the refractive index of the medium between the two
jointed fibers (i.e. for air n = 1).
FIBER ALIGNMENT AND JOINT LOSS (CONTD….)
MECHANICAL MISALIGNMENT
Mechanical Misalignment (contd….)
Mechanical Misalignment (contd….)

Figure . The three possible types of misalignment which may occur when
jointing compatible optical fibers [Ref. 9]: (a) longitudinal misalignment; (b)
lateral misalignment; (c) angular misalignment
Intrinsic joint losses.

The losses caused by the three possible types of misalignment

with those of Fresnel reflection are usually referred to as intrinsic
joint losses.
• (a) Different core and/or cladding diameters;
• (b) different numerical apertures and/or relative refractive
index differences;
• (c) Different refractive index profiles;
• (d) Fiber faults (core ellipticity, core concentricity, etc.).
 Multimode fiber joints

Figure . Some intrinsic coupling losses at fiber joints: (a) core diameter mismatch;
(b) numerical aperture mismatch; (c) refractive index profile difference
3.Single-mode fiber joints
• In the absence of angular misalignment calculated that the loss Tl due to
lateral offset y was given by:

where ω is the normalized spot size of the fundamental mode.

where ω is the spot size in μm, a is the fiber core radius and V is the normalized
frequency for the fiber. Alternatively, the insertion loss Ta caused by an angular
misalignment θ (in radians) at a joint in a single-mode fiber may be given by:

where n1 is the fiber core refractive index and NA is the numerical aperture of the
fiber.
 4.FIBER SPLICES
• A permanent or semi-permanent connection between two individual optical fibers is known as fiber
splice.

• Fiber splicing is frequently used to establish long-haul optical fiber Links

• where smaller fiber lengths need to be joined, and there is no
• Requirement for repeated connection and disconnection.

• Splices may be divided into two broad categories depending upon the splicing technique utilized.
• Types of splicing
• there are two main types of splicing
• i) Fusion splicing.

• Ii) Mechanical splicing / v groove

 Fusion splices(contd…)

• The fusion splicing of single fibers involves the heating of the

two prepared fiber ends to their fusing point with the
application of sufficient axial pressure between the two optical
fibers.
• It is therefore essential that the stripped (of cabling and buffer
coating) fiber ends are adequately positioned and aligned in order
to achieve good continuity of the transmission medium at the
junction point.

• Hence the fibers are usually positioned and clamped with the aid
of an inspection microscope.
Figure .Electric arc fusion splicing: (a) an example of fusion splicing apparatus [Refs 34, 38];
(b) schematic illustration of the prefusion method for accurately splicing optical fibers.
 Optical Fiber Splicing: Multiple Splices
• Multiple simultaneous fusion splicing of an array of fibers in a ribbon cable
can be done.

• 12-fiber ribbon was prepared by scoring and breaking prior to pressing the
fiber ends onto a contact plate.

• An electric are fusing device was then employed to provide simultaneous

fusion.

• Such a device is now commercially available to allow the splicing of 12

fibers simultaneously in a time of around 40 seconds.

• Splice losses using this device with multimode graded index fiber range
from an average of 0.04 dB to a maximum of 0.12 dB, whereas for single-
mode fiber the average loss is 0.04 dB with a 0.4 dB maximum.

• Splice losses using this device with multimode graded index fiber range
from an average of 0.04 dB to a maximum of 0.12 dB, whereas for single-
mode fiber the average loss is 0.04 dB with a 0.4 dB maximum.
In this technique a 12-
fiber splice is prepared
by stripping the ribbon
and coating material
from the fibers.
Then the 12 fibers are
laid into the
trapezoidal* grooves
of a silicon chip using
a comb structure, as
shown in Figure 5.14.
The top silicon chip is
then positioned prior
to applying epoxy to
the chip–ribbon
interface. Finally, after
curing, the front-end
face is ground and
polished.
V-groove splices

Figure. V-groove splices

V-groove splices
 5.FIBER CONNECTORS:
Demountable fiber connectors are more difficult to achieve than optical fiber splices.

This is because they must maintain similar tolerance requirements to splices in order
to couple light between fibers efficiently, but they must accomplish it in a removable
fashion.
The connector design must allow for repeated connection and disconnection without
problems of fiber alignment, which may lead to degradation in the performance of
the transmission line at the joint.
Hence to operate satisfactorily, the demountable connector must provide reproducible
accurate alignment of the optical fibers.
Optical fiber connectors may be considered in three major areas, which are:
(a) The fiber termination, which protects and locates the fiber ends.
(b) The fiber end alignment to provide optimum optical coupling.
(c) The outer shell, which maintains the connection and the fiber alignment, protects
the fiber ends from the environment and provides adequate strength at the joint.
Fiber connectors(contd….)
Principles of Good Connector Design
1. Low coupling loss.
2. Inter-changeability – No variation is loss whenever a
connector is applied to a fiber.
3. Ease of assembly.
4. Low environmental sensitivity.
5. Low cost – The connector should be in expensive also the
tooling required for fitting.
6. Reliable operation.
7. Ease of connection.
8. Repeatability – Connection and reconnection many times
without an increase in loss.
 Fiber connectors(contd….)
Fiber connectors may be separated into two broad categories:
1.Butt-jointed connectors
2.Expanded beam connectors.

Butt-jointed connectors rely upon alignment of the two prepared fiber ends in
close proximity (butted) to each other so that the fiber core axes
coincide.
Expanded beam connectors utilize interposed optics at the joint (i.e. lenses) in
order to expand the beam from the transmitting fiber end before reducing it
again to a size compatible with the receiving fiber end.
Butt-jointed connectors are the most widely used connector type and a
substantial number have been reported.
We review some of the more common butt jointed connector designs which
have been developed for use with both multimode and single-mode fibers.
 Cylindrical ferrule connectors:

Figure.
Structure of
a basic
ferrule
connector

The two fibers to be connected are permanently bonded (with epoxy resin) in metal
plugs known as ferrules which have an accurately drilled central hole in their end
faces where the stripped (of buffer coating) fiber is located.
It is essential with this type of connector that the fiber end faces are smooth and
square
(i.e. perpendicular to the fiber axis). This may be achieved with varying success by:
(a) Cleaving the fiber before insertion into the ferrule;
(b) inserting and bonding before cleaving the fiber close to the ferrule end face;
(c) using either (a) or (b) and polishing the fiber end face until it is flush with the end
of the ferrule.
 Cylindrical ferrule connectors(contd…)

Figure: Structure of a watch jewel

connector ferrule

In this case the fiber is centered with respect to the ferrule through the watch
jewel hole.
The use of the watch jewel allows the close diameter and tolerance
requirements of the ferrule end face hole to be obtained more easily than simply
through drilling of the metallic ferrule end face alone.
Typical concentricity errors between the fiber core and the outside diameter of
the jeweled ferrule are in the range 2 to 6 μm giving insertion losses in the
range 1 to 2 dB with multimode step index fibers.
Ceramic Capillary Ferrule:

Figure 5.17 ST series

multimode fiber
connector using ceramic
capillary ferrules

In addition, the straight ceramic ferrule may be observed in Figure 5.17 which
contrasts with the stepped ferrule (i.e. a ferrule with a single step which reduces the
diameter midway along its length) provided in the SMA connector design.
The average loss obtained using this connector with multimode graded index fiber (i.e.
core/cladding: 62.5/125 μm) was 0.22 dB with less than 0.1 dB change in loss after
1000 reconnections
Duplex and multiple-fiber connectors:

Media interface plug for

a duplex connector

• Multiple-fiber connection is obviously advantageous when

interconnecting a large number of fibers.
• Both cylindrical and biconical ferrule connectors can be
assembled in housings to form multiple-fiber configurations
 Fiber ribbon connector using V-groove silicon chips:

Figure 5.19 Multiple-fiber connectors: (a) fiber ribbon connector using V-groove
silicon chips
 Fiber ribbon connector using V-groove
silicon chips(contd….)
In this connector, ribbon fibers were mounted and bonded
into the V-grooves in order to form a plug together with
precision metal guiding rods and coil springs.
The fiber connections were then accomplished by butt
jointing the two pairs of guiding rods in the slitted sleeves
located in the adaptor, also illustrated in.

This multiple-fiber connector exhibited average insertion

losses of 0.8 dB which were reduced to 0.4 dB by the use
of index-matching fluid.
 Single-mode 10-fiber connector:

Figure 5.19 single-mode 10-

fiber connector

• It comprised two molded ferrules with 10-fiber ribbon cables which are accurately
aligned by guide pins, then held stable with a rectangular guide sleeve and a cramp
spring.
• This compact multifiber connector which has dimensions of only 6 × 4 mm
exhibited an average connection loss of 0.43 dB when used with singlemode fibers
having a spot size (ω0) of 5 μm.
 Fiber connector design types:
• Straight tip (ST)
• Subminiature assembly (SMA)
• Fiber connector (FC)
• Miniature unit (MU)
• Subscriber connector (SC)
• D4 connector
Bend Connectors:

90 degree bend connector

Bend Connectors(contd….)

90 degree bend multilayer connector

 6.Fiber couplers
An optical fiber coupler is a device that distributes light from a main fiber into one or
more branch fibers.
Optical fiber couplers are often passive devices in which the power transfer takes
place either:
(a) through the fiber core cross-section by butt jointing the fibers or by using some
form of imaging optics between the fibers (core interaction type);
Or
(b) through the fiber surface and normal to its axis by converting the guided core
modes to both cladding and refracted modes which then enable the power-sharing
mechanism (surface interaction type).

Figure. Classification of optical fiber couplers: (a) core interaction type; (b) surface interaction
type
Multiport optical fiber couplers

Figure.Optical fiber
coupler types and
functions:
(a) three-port couplers;
(b) four-port coupler;
(c) star coupler;
(d) wavelength division
multiplexing and
demultiplexing couplers
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)
Multiport optical fiber couplers can also be subdivided into the following three main
groups
1. Three- and four-port couplers, which are used for signal splitting, distribution
and combining.

2. Star couplers, which are generally used for distributing a single input signal to
multiple outputs.

3.Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices, which are a specialized form

of coupler designed to permit a number of different peak wavelength optical
signals to be transmitted in parallel on a single fiber.
In this context WDM couplers either combine the different wavelength optical
signal onto the fiber (i.e. multiplex) or separate the different wavelength optical
signals outputfrom the fiber (i.e. demultiplex).
MULTIPORT OPTICAL FIBER COUPLERS(CONTD….)

Ideal fiber couplers should distribute light among the branch fibers with no
scattering loss or the generation of noise, and they should function with
complete insensitivity to factors including the distribution of light between the
fiber modes, as well as the state of polarization of the light.

In particular, the finite scattering loss at the coupler limits

the number of terminals that can be connected, or
alternatively the span of the network,
whereas the generation of noise and modal effects can cause problems in the
specification of the network performance.
 Three- and four-port couplers
1.The lateral offset method, illustrated in
Figure 5.28(a), relies on the overlapping
of the fiber end faces.
Light from the input fiber is coupled to the
output fibers according to the degree of
overlap.
Hence the input power can be distributed in a
well defined proportion by appropriate control
of the amount of lateral offset between the
fibers.
This technique, which can provide a
bidirectional coupling capability, is well suited
Figure. Fabrication techniques for three-port fiber couplers: (a)
the lateral offset method; (b) the semitransparent mirror method for use with multimode step index fibers.

2.The semitransparent mirror method provides an ingenious way to accomplish such a

fiber coupler, as shown in Figure 5.28(b).
A partially reflecting surface can be applied directly to the fiber end face cut at an angle
of 45° to form a thin-film beam splitter.
The input power may be split in any desired ratio between the reflected and transmitted
beams
depending upon the properties of the intervening mirror, and typical excess losses for
the device lie in the range 1 to 2 dB.
 Three- and four-port couplers(contd….)
1.Figure 5.29(a) shows the structure of a
parallel surface type of GRIN-rod lens
three port coupler which comprises two
quarter pitch lenses with a
semitransparent mirror in between.
Light rays from the input fiber F1
collimate in the first lens before they are
incident on the mirror.
A portion of the incident beam is
reflected back and is coupled to fiber F2,
while the transmitted light is focused in
the second lens and then coupled to fiber
F3.
Figure 5.29 GRIN-rod lens micro-optic fiber couplers: (a) parallel
surface type; (b) slant surface type

2.The slant surface version of the similar coupler is shown in Figure 5.29(b).
The parallel surface type, however, is the most attractive due to its ease of fabrication,
compactness, simplicity and relatively low insertion loss.

Finally, the substitution of the mirror by an interference filter offers application of these
devices to WDM
MULTIPORT OPTICAL FIBER COUPLERS(CONTD….)

Figure. Structure and principle of

operation for the fiber fused biconical
taper coupler

The most common method for manufacturing couplers is the fused biconical taper
(FBT) technique, the basic structure and principle of operation of which are illustrated
in Figure 5.30.
In this method the fibers are generally twisted together and then spot fused under
tension such that the fused section is elongated to form a biconical taper
structure.
A three-port coupler is formed by removing one of the input fibers.
Optical power launched into the input fiber propagates in the form of guided core
modes.
The higher order modes, however, leave the fiber core because of its reduced size in
the tapered-down region and are therefore guided as cladding modes. These modes
transfer back to guided core modes in the tapered-up region of the output fiber with an
approximately even distribution between the two fibers.
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)
 Star couplers In the mixer-rod method
illustrated in Figure 5.33 a thin
platelet of glass is employed,
which effectively mixes the light
from one fiber, dividing it
among the outgoing fibers.

This method can be used to

produce a transmissive star
coupler or a reflective star
coupler

The splitting loss is related to the number of output ports N following:

For a single input port and multiple output ports where j = 1, N, then the excess loss
is given by:
Star couplers(contd….)

The fibers which constitute the star coupler are bundled, twisted, heated and pulled, to
form the device illustrated in Figure. 5.34.
With multimode fiber this method relies upon the coupling of higher order modes
between the different fibers. It is therefore highly mode dependent, which results in a
relatively wide port-to-port output variation in comparison with star couplers based on
the mixer-rod technique.
References
1. "Optical Fiber Communication”, Gerd Keiser, 4th Ed., MGH, 2008.

2. "Optical Fiber Communications", John M. Senior, Pearson Education. 3rd

Impresson, 2007.

3.”MEMS and microsystems design and manufacture “,tai-ran hsu