Bachelor’s in Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

NED University of Engineering & Technology

CE-104 Engineering Materials

Part-VIII

Course Teacher
Dr Muhammad Aslam Bhutto
 Bricks and Tiles

 Bricks are blocks or units of tempered clay

moulded to suitable shapes and sizes while still in
plastic condition, commonly dried in sun shine and
burnt if desired so to make more strong, hard and
durable

 Bricks are used in masonry construction and are

typically produced in common or standard sizes in
bulk quantities. They have been regarded as one of
the oldest building materials used throughout
history

 In the general sense, a "brick" is a standard-sized

weight-bearing building unit, made from clay, lime-
and-sand, concrete, or shaped stone

 It is light in weight, uniform in size and can be

properly arranged and hence replaces stones
 Bricks
Classification of Bricks
 Depending upon the nature of the soil, moulding, finishing and quality of
burning, the bricks are classified as:

 Sun-dried or Kacha or Unburnt Bricks

 Burnt or Pukka Bricks
 Special Bricks

 Sun-dried bricks, after moulding, are dried under sun heat. They are used
for the constructions of temporary and cheap structures

 Burnt bricks have size of 9 cm x19 cm x 9 cm with a frog of 1-2 cm on top

surface. The frog serves helps bonding of bricks with each other. They are
further classified as:
 First-class bricks
 Second-class bricks
 Third-class bricks
 Over-burnt bricks
 Bricks

First-class bricks Second-class bricks Third-class bricks

Over-burnt bricks Under-burnt bricks

 Bricks
Classification of Bricks
 First-class burnt bricks are well-burnt, have uniform colour and shape
with sharp edges and smooth surface and are free from cracks. They absorb
up to 15% of water by weight if kept submerged for 24 hours. They are used
in all sound works of permanent character, in flooring and in the face-work
requiring no plastering

 Second-class burnt bricks are well-burnt, but have non-uniform colour

or irregular shape and slightly rough surface. They are used in unimportant
situations or in the face-work where plastering has to be done

 Third-class burnt bricks are little un-burnt, are soft and lighter in
colour. They are used in constructions of temporary structures

 Over-burnt bricks being near fire get fused and loose their shape. They
are used for constructing inferior structures and in foundations as well as
aggregate and road metal
 Bricks
Classification of Bricks
 Special Bricks are different from the commonly used bricks with respect
to their shape, specification and special purpose for which they are used

 Following are the different types of special bricks

a) Burnt clay facing bricks
b) Specially shaped bricks
c) Heavy duty bricks
d) Burnt clay hollow bricks
e) Sewer bricks
f) Acid resistant bricks
g) Refractory bricks

 Burnt clay facing bricks are used for the exposed face of masonry without any
further surface protection. Use of facing bricks is economical for high rise
buildings and where external plaster is to be frequently renewed due to
corrosive environment
 Bricks
Classification of Bricks

 Specially shaped bricks suit different situations they are used in

 Bull-nosed bricks: These are used for rounding off sharp corners
 Cant or plinth bricks: These bricks have a bevel taken off one side and
may be used in plinths or in doors and window jambs
 Cornice bricks: These are often made in different shapes and sizes and
are used for constructing cornice

 Heavy duty bricks are required for masonry in heavy engineering works
such as bridge structures, industrial foundation and multistoried buildings.
They are highly durable and have low water absorption, high compressive
strength and high bulk density

 Burnt clay hollow blocks are used for thermal insulation of walls and
are used for such portions where extreme hot atmosphere persists. They have
another advantage of light weightiness and therefore are expensive
 Bricks
Classification of Bricks
 Sewer bricks are intended for use in lining of walls, roofs and floors of
sewers used for sanitary sewage (domestic)

 Acid resistant bricks are used for masonry constructions, floorings

subjected to acid attacks, lining of chambers and towers in chemical plants,
lining of sewers carrying industrial effluents etc. to prevent deterioration of
bricks by acid

 Refractory bricks are defined as non-metallic material suitable for the

construction or lining of furnaces operated at high temperatures. Stability at
high temperatures, both physical and chemical, is the primary requirement
for refractory materials. They are made from refractory clays which can
withstand high temperatures without becoming soft on melting. The
refractory clay is composed of heat resisting materials such as silica, alumina,
bauxite magnetite, chromite etc. and does not contain metallic oxides such as
iron oxide, lime and alkalis
 Bricks
Brick Earth
 Clay used to make bricks is called brick earth. Brick earths are a wind-blown
dust deposited under extremely cold, dry, pre- or post-glacial conditions
 The name arises from its early use in making house bricks, its composition
being suitable for brick-making without additional material being added

Qualities of Brick Earth

 It should be a mixture of pure clay and sand
 When mixed in water, it can be easily moulded and dried without cracking
and warping
 It should contain some amount of lime so that sand grains melt and bind
together clay particles
 Some amount of iron should be present, which also acts as colouring agent
 Bricks
Chemical Composition of Brick Earth
 Alumina or clay 20-30 %
 Silt 20-35%
 Silica or sand 35-50%
 Lime (CaO) & Magnesia (MgO) 1-15%

Function of Constituents
 Clay or Alumina make bricks plastic and lend the bricks its hardness
 Silica or sand prevents shrinkage, cracking and warping of bricks, but too
much sand can make the bricks brittle
 Lime and oxides of iron act as fluxes helping the grains of sand to melt and
bind the particles together
 Oxides of iron also impart a red color to the brick
 Magnesia present in clay with oxides or iron makes color of brick yellow
 Bricks
Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth
The following materials have an adverse effect on the properties of brick and
should be removed before the manufacturing process starts
 Pebbles of Stones & Gravel: Clay particles do not mix uniformly in
presence of stones. As a result, brick may crack and become weak and porous

 Alkaline Salts: They absorb moisture from atmosphere and create

dampness. This moisture when dried leaves a greyish white deposit on
account of which the appearance of building is spoiled

 Limestone: Presence of large quantity of lime or limestone in lumps is

detrimental to brick as it slakes afterwards when brick is burnt and ad a
result brick splits
 Vegetation and Organic Matter: It will produce porous bricks.
Evolution of gas during the burning of the carbonaceous matter will result in
the formation of small pores
 Bricks
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

The manufacturing can be described as the following process:

1. Selection of site
2. Preparation of clay
3. Molding of bricks
4. Drying of bricks
5. Burning of bricks

1. Selection of Site
The site should be so selected that all ingredients are available close to it.
Similarly water and fuel like coal is also available close by, so that unnecessary
digging and transportation charges are avoided. Water table at the site should
be at least 1 m below the bottom of the kiln.

2. Preparation of Clay
Brick clay should be prepared in two stages:
a) Weathering
b) Tempering
 Bricks
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

 Weathering: Soil is left in heaps for at least one month in open sky to
disintegrate the big boulders of clay to a uniform mass under the action of
atmospheric agencies. Soil is turned twice during this period and is kept wet
throughout the weathering period. Impurities are eliminated as they oxidize
during this period

 Tempering: After weathering, the soil is tempered by mixing the right

quantity of water, sand and other ingredients. Quantity of water may range
from 7% to 30 % depending upon the moulding method. The moistened soil
is then kneaded with spades or other manual or mechanical equipment into a
plastic mass
 The mixture is then fed into a pug mill, which is a fast continuous mixer and
in which materials are simultaneously ground and mixed with a liquid.-thus
achieved is a thoroughly mixed, homogeneous mixture in a few seconds. A
typical pug mill consists of a horizontal boxlike chamber with a top inlet and
a bottom discharge at the other end, 2 shafts with opposing paddles and a
drive assembly
 Bricks
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks
3. Moulding

Bricks may be molded by any of the three methods

a) Soft mud process (Hand moulding)
b) Stiff mud process (Machine moulding)
c) Semi dry process (Machine moulding)

 In Soft Mud Process, water used to prepare clay is 25-30% and moulding is
done by hand. Moulds may be made from wood or thin steel plates. The
inside of the mold is cleaned and sprinkled with sand or ash. The mold is
filled with the prepared clay by a force, judged by experience, in such a way
that no air pockets are formed. The surplus soil is then scrapped off with a
sharp straight edge. In this way the top surface is leveled. The whole mold is
lifted and inverted on the place prepared for it to dry. The surface should be
preferably sprinkled with sand so that bricks do not stick to it
 Bricks
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks
3. Moulding
 In Stiff Mud Process, water used is about 12 to 18 %. Ingredients initially
mixed are fed into the pug mill for final mixing. Bricks are formed by
extruding stiff clay through a mold or orifice (opening) in the extruding
machine. The extruding clay is a continuous mass and is received on a
conveyer to be further cut into pieces of the correct sizes of bricks
 In Semi Dry Process, water used is 7-15 % so that clay is just damped. It is
the pressed under a pressure of 1000 to 1200 kg/cm 2 with the aid of a plunger
machine to form the bricks. At the first plunger machine, material is
automatically measured off, fed into a steel mould and pressed by plungers.
It is then expelled out from the mold and transferred to another plunger
machine where it is again pressed. Pressed bricks do not require drying and
can be fed directly into the kiln for burning. These bricks are very strong and
compact and more durable than other bricks
 Bricks
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

4. Drying
 Damp bricks if burnt may burst, crack or warp. Drying is, therefore,
essential before they are taken for burning. The dried bricks should be
sufficiently hard to be handled or stacked in the kiln without injury. There
are two methods used for drying
 Natural drying
 Artificial dying

 In Natural drying, the bricks can be arranged in rows on hacks (a rough

floor of old bricks or concrete raised above the ground) with spaces between
the for air circulation or it may be a roof. The duration of natural drying is 2-
7 days or more depending upon weather

 The disadvantage of natural drying is long durations required and lack of

control
 Bricks
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

4. Drying

 In Artificial Drying, there are two types of driers to be used

 Hot floor drier
 Tunnel drier

 The Hot Floor Driers are heated either by a furnace placed at one end of the
drier or by flues (vents) beneath the floor of the drier

 The Tunnel Driers are either periodic i.e. filled, dried and emptied in
rotation, or continuous; loading being done at one end and unloading at the
other end. The tunnel driers are heated by hot air from kilns and are more
economical than hot floor drier. The temperature in the drier is less than
1200 C and it takes one to three days for drying depending upon the
temperature of the drier and character and shape of the clay product
 Bricks
Manufacturing of Clay Bricks

5. Burning
 Bricks are burnt to remove the moisture present in the clay in the mixed
state, to impart hardness and strength
 Most of the free moisture is removed during the dried process but, water in
the pores is not removed which is removed by burning. At temperatures of
6500C, organic matter in the brick is oxidized and also the combined water is
driven away. But heating process is continued because bricks can reabsorb
moisture from air at this stage. At much higher temperatures chemical
reactions occur and bind the particles of clay together to improve its
strength, density and less moisture absorption qualities. This can happen at
temperatures more than 11000C
 Bricks are burnt in clamps or in kilns. Clamps are temporary structures but
kiln is a permanent structure. Heating process takes 40 to 150 hours
depending upon type of kiln, clay and other variables. Cooling takes place for
about 48 to 72 hours
 Bricks
Limitations of Use
 Starting in the 20th century, the use of brickwork declined in some areas due
to concerns with earthquakes

 Earthquakes such as the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 and the 1933
Long Beach earthquake revealed the weaknesses of brick masonry in
earthquake-prone areas

 During seismic events, the mortar cracks and crumbles, and the bricks are no
longer held together

 Brick masonry with steel reinforcement, which helps hold the masonry
together during earthquakes, was used to replace many of the unreinforced
masonry buildings

 Retrofitting older unreinforced masonry structures has been mandated in

many jurisdictions
 Characteristics of Bricks
 The characteristics of bricks usually depend on the following and finally
affect the properties of the construction work
 Composition of raw materials used
 Manufacturing process involved
 Workmanship

 The properties or major characteristics are

 Colour depends upon its chemical composition, temperature of kiln and
control on burning temperature

 Texture is produced to the brick as it leaves the extruding die. A smooth

texture is produced by the pressure of clay against the sides of the steel
die. Extruding is the process of creating objects of fixed size

 Size and shape: Size of commonly used bricks is as follows

Length 19 cm 19 cm
Width 9 cm 9 cm
Height 9 cm 4 cm
 Characteristics of Bricks
 Strength of bricks vary with the raw materials and the manufacturing
process involved. Bricks may have to withstand great compressive stresses.
Common building bricks should have a minimum strength of 35 kg/cm 2, but
it should not fall below by more than 20 %. (i.e. 7 kg/cm2)

 Water Absorption of Bricks should not be more than 20 % of its dry

weight when immersed in water for about 24 hours
 Fire resistance: A good brick should have an adequate resistance to fire.
Ordinary brick can resist temperature up to 1200 0 C

 Durability A good brick should be able to resist the effects of weather e.g.
temperature variations, rain frost etc

 Efflorescence is the loss of water (or a solvent) of crystallization from a

hydrated or solvated salt to the atmosphere on exposure to air. On porous
construction materials it may present a cosmetic problem only (primary
efflorescence), but can sometimes indicate serious structural weakness
(secondary efflorescence)
 Tiles
 Clay products that resemble bricks, but are thinner, are called brick tiles

 Due to thinness, they have a greater tendency to crack or warp (twist, distort)
in drying and burning than ordinary bricks. Process of manufacture of tiles
is carried out with care. They are dried if in natural environment under
shade. They are burnt and cooled gradually

 Tiles are used for floors, walls and pitched roofs

 Roofing Tiles are manufactured with more care and attention at all stages.
They must be moulded preferably by the semi-dry process to have a stiff
consistency

 Manufacturing method of roofing tiles is the same as for bricks but tiles are
burnt hard to have greater strength. Roofing tiles should have a very low
absorption quality of 5 to 7 % only
 Tiles
 In Wall and floor tiles, the clay used is of rich variety. Kaolin1 or china
clay which is white in colour is best suited for the purpose. Sometimes a
mixture of clays such as fire clay2, shale and kaolin may be made in the
required proportions

 The mixture is ground and water is added to it to prepare slurry. The slurry
is then allowed to settle down in the tank. The top water is removed by
decantation3 process. The bottom deposit is first drained in the filter press
and then dried over the ovens. The dried mixture is then reground to a fine
powder

 The moulding is done by semi dry process and tiles are sent directly to the
kiln for burning

 Burning of tiles is done in two stages. In the first stage the tiles are burnt to a
temperature of 7000C and taken out for a dip in the glaze4 solution for the
required color. After this tiles are again sent to the kiln for the second stage of
burning to a temperature of 12500C to fuse to glaze
 Tiles
1.Kaolinite is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical
composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet linked
through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedral. Rocks that are rich in
kaolinite are known as kaolin or china clay

2. Fire clay is a term applied to a range of refractory clay used in the manufacture of
ceramic especially fire brick, defines fire clay

3. Decantation is a process for the separation of mixtures, by removing a top layer of

liquid from which a precipitate has settled. Usually a small amount of solution must be left in
the container, and care must be taken to prevent a small amount of precipitate from flowing
with the solution out of the container. It is frequently used to purify a liquid by separating it
from a suspension of insoluble particles

4.Glaze is applied to the surface of clay articles for improving the appearance, making them
non-absorbent and imparting durability. Glaze means to put a clear or colored coating on a
ceramic object and fire it in a kiln, in order to fix the coloration, make it watertight, or give it a
shiny appearance
 Tiles
Characteristics of Good Tiles

 Colour
Colour of tile should be uniform

 Size and shape

Tiles must have equal sizes so that they look proper after they are placed in
position

 Soundness
It should produce a clear ringing sound when struck against a light hammer
or with one another

 Strength
Tiles should be of sufficient strength to absorb some degree of shocks. They
must be free of cracks and bends which will result in decrement in strength