BIOMOLECULES
PART 2 – CARBOHYDRATES
BIOMOLECULES
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Carbohydrates
Function and examples
How they are produced (photosynthesis) and used for energy (respiration)
Identifying and labelling bonds
Monosaccharides
Glucose, fructose and galactose
Anomeric carbon and / β versions
Disaccharides
Maltose, Sucrose and Lactose
Polysaccharides
Starch, Cellulose and Glycogen
CARBOHYDRATES
Extremely important biological compounds
Provide energy (approx. 17 kJ/g - depends on the carb)
Supply carbon
Stored chemical energy (high energy C-C bonds)
Part of the structures of some cells/tissues
Types of sugars
Simple sugars
Like glucose, fructose, sucrose etc.
Complex carbohydrates
Made of long chains of sugars such as starches and cellulose
CARBOHYDRATES
“Hydrates” of carbon – contain C, H and O.
Presence of OH groups makes simple carbohydrates fairly soluble in water.
Complex carbohydrates are less soluble, due to their size.
Larger saccharides are made up of smaller units (also called monosaccharides):
Can be named systematically.
Can also have common names.
Name ends with suffix “ose”.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Process by which glucose is
produced from CO2 and H2O.
• Occurs in cells that contain
chloroplasts (e.g. plant cells).
• Chloroplasts contain
chlorophyll, a chemical that
can trap sunlight.
STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Light dependent reaction:
• Visible light is absorbed by
chlorophyll.
• H2O used, O2 produced.
• This produces ATP and
NADPH
• Light independent reaction:
• Carbon dioxide is trapped
and converted to glucose.
• An enzyme called Rubisco
plays an important role in this.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Chemical process in which glucose is broken down
in the presence of oxygen to release carbon
dioxide, water and energy.
Occurs in an organelle known as mitochondria.
Energy released is stored in the form of ATP.
REMAKING ATP FROM ADP
ATP is the main molecule used for
energy.
Using ATP involves breaking the
high energy bonds between
phosphates.
Hence ATP needs to be “recharged”
by reforming these bonds.
This process is performed by
“coupling” it with reactions that
release energy
Main way of doing this:
Respiration!!
MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides – simplest
carbohydrates
General formula of CxH2xOx (or
CH2O)x
Can exist as either ring shape
or chain shape- normally form
rings in presence of water.
In ring structure can join with
other sugars.
GLUCOSE IN RING FORM
Ring form
Linear form
Abbreviated ring structure
THE Α AND Β RING FORMS OF GLUCOSE
• In monosaccharides, carbon 1 is known as the anomeric carbon
– it allows two “versions” of each monosaccharide to exist.
• A sugar is known as either “α” or “β” depending on which
direction the “OH” group faces.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Glucose_equilibrium.png
CHAIR CONFIRMATIONS
Sugars are also often shown in chair confirmation.
Within a chair conformation there are two key types of position
Axial – point straight up and down
Equatorial point up or down on a small angle
ANOMERISM
& CHAIRS
Anomeric carbons can also be
shown in chair form.
In beta form, the OH on C1 is
equatorial (points sideways)
In alpha form, the OH on C1 is
axial (points up or down).
Monosaccharides can alternate
between these forms, if not
bonded to other substances.
FORMATION OF LARGE CHAINS
• Carbohydrate monomers join together to form larger sugars –
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• This involves a condensation reaction between hydroxyl
groups to form a glycosidic bond. Numbers indicate position.
DISACCHARIDES
Most carbohydrates in nature
contain more than one
monosaccharide unit
Two – disaccharide
Three – trisaccharide
6-10 – oligosaccharide
Larger – polysaccharide
In a disaccharide two
monosaccharide units are joined
by a glycosidic bond between the
anomeric carbon of one unit and
the –OH of another.
COMPLEX
CARBOHYDRATES
Polymers of the simple sugars – long chains of simple sugar units bonded together
Often referred to as polysaccharides
These long, chain-like polymers make ideal storage products due to their insolubility e.g.
Starch – the storage molecule synthesised from glucose by plants
Cellulose – synthesised by plants for cell wall construction, indigestible because we lack enzymes for it,
provides fibre
Glycogen – the storage molecule found in muscle and liver cells. When blood sugar levels drop, liver
cells break down glycogen and release glucose to the blood
CELLULOSE
Composed of β glucose, 1,4 glycosidic bond, unbranched.
Humans do not possess enzymes to adequately break this bond.
Very tightly packed.
Major structural carbohydrate in plants.
Cordeiro, R.C., 2016. PLASMA TREATMENT OF NATURAL FIBERS TO IMPROVE FIBER-
MATRIX COMPATIBILITY(Doctoral dissertation, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro).
CELLULOSE AND PLANT CELL WALLS
STARCH
• A storage form of glucose in plants.
• It contains two polymers composed
of glucose units: amylose
(unbranched) and amylopectin
(branched).
• In amylose, bonding is 1-4 linkage of
glucose monomers.
• Amylopectin is the same but also
contains a 1-6 branch after every 24
– 30 glucose units.
STARCH
Amagliani, L., O’Regan, J., Kelly, A.L. and O’Mahony, J.A., 2016. Chemistry, structure,
functionality and applications of rice starch. Journal of Cereal Science, 70, pp.291-300.
GLYCOGEN
• Glycogen is a storage form
of glucose in animals.
• Also consists of glucose
with 1-4 glycosidic bonds
and 1-6 branches.
• It is more highly branched
than amylopectin there’s a
branch after every 8-12
glucose units.
