Pressure Measurement

Pressure is a quantity derived from the fundamental quantities of force

and area and is usually measured in terms of the force acting on a
known area.

The SI unit of pressure:

Pascal = Newtons per square meter
The bar = 100,000 Pascal = 14.5 psi

To avoid ambiguity in pressure measurements:

(a) or (abs) indicates absolute pressure,
(g) indicates gauge pressure
(d) specifies differential pressure

2.57 bar (g) means that the pressure is 2.57 bar measured as
gauge pressure
Pressure measurement is the next-most measured process
parameter after temperature

Pressure can be quantified in three alternative ways:

1. Absolute pressure:This is the difference between the pressure of

the fluid and the absolute zero of pressure

2. Gauge pressure:This describes the difference between the

pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure.

3. Differential pressure:This term is used to describe the difference

between two absolute pressure values, such as the pressures at
two different points within the same fluid (often between the two
sides of a flow restrictor in a system measuring volume flow rate)

Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude. it is not a fixed quantity

Gauge pressure is related to atmospheric pressure, it also is not a
fixed quantity.
Absolute pressure measurements are made for such purposes as aircraft
altitude measurement (in instruments known as altimeters) and when quantifying
atmospheric pressure.

Gauge pressure measurements are made by instruments such as those

measuring the pressure in vehicle tires and those measuring pressure at various
points in industrial processes.

Differential pressure is measured for some purposes in industrial processes,

especially as part of some fluid flow rate-measuring devices.
The applied pressure causes displacement of
the diaphragm and this movement is measured The diaphragm can be either plastic, metal
by a displacement transducer alloy, stainless steel, or ceramic

can measure both absolute pressure (up to 50

bar) and gauge pressure (up to 2000 bar)
- the diaphragm displacement is determined by measuring
the capacitance change between the diaphragm and a
metal plate that is close to it.
- These have a typical measurement uncertainty of 0.2%.
 The external unknown pressure is given to the diaphragm.
 The diaphragm expands and contracts as the pressure increases and decreases.
 The displacement of the diaphragm is measured by the Fotonic sensor.
 Fotonic sensor in which light travels from a light source, down an optical fibre, is reflected
back from a diaphragm, and then travels back along a second fibre to a photodetector.
 There is a characteristic relationship between the light reflected and the distance from
the fibre ends to the diaphragm, thus making the amount of reflected light dependent
upon the diaphragm displacement and hence the measured pressure.
 The output signal is immune to electromagnetic noise.
Bellows are another elastic-element type of pressure sensor that operate on very similar
principles to the diaphragm pressure sensor.

Pressure changes within the bellows, which are typically fabricated as a seamless tube
of either metal or metal alloy, produce translational motion of the end of the bellows
that can be measured by capacitive, inductive (LVDT-Linear Variable Differential
Transformer), or potentiometric transducers.
 The Bourdon tube is also an elastic
element type of pressure transducer.

It is relatively inexpensive and is used

commonly for measuring the gauge
pressure of both gaseous and liquid
Fluids..

When pressure is applied at the open, fixed end of the tube, the oval cross
section becomes more circular. In consequence, there is displacement of the
free end of the tube. This displacement is measured by some form of
displacement transducer, which is commonly a potentiometer or LVDT.
 Manometers are passive instruments that give a visual indication of
pressure values
 The U-tube manometer is the most common form of
manometer.
 Applied pressure causes a displacement of liquid inside
the U-shaped glass tube, and output pressure reading P
is made by observing the difference,h, between the level
of liquid in the two halves of the tube A and B

 where r is the specific gravity of the fluid.

 If an unknown pressure is applied to side A, and side B is
open to the atmosphere, the output reading is gauge
pressure.

 Alternatively, if side B of the tube is sealed and evacuated, the output

reading is absolute pressure
 The U-tube manometer also measures the differential pressure, (p1p2),
according to the expression (p1-p2) = hrg,
 if two unknown pressures p1 and p 2 are applied, respectively, to sides A
and B of the tube.
 The well-type or cistern manometer is similar
to a U-tube manometer but one-half of the tube
is made very large so that it forms a well.

The change in the level of the well as the

measured pressure varies is negligible.
Therefore, the liquid level in only one tube has
to be measured, which makes the instrument
much easier to use than the U-tube manometer

If an unknown pressure,p1, is applied to port A and port B

is open to the atmosphere, the gauge pressure is given
by p1 = hr
The inclined manometer or draft gauge is a variation on
the well-type manometer in which one leg of the tube is
inclined to increase measurement sensitivity.
Wire is stretched across a chamber
containing fluid at unknown pressure
subjected to a magnetic field.

The wire resonates at its natural

frequency according to its tension, which
varies with pressure.

Pressure is calculated by measuring the

frequency of vibration of the wire.

Such frequency measurement is normally

carried out by electronics integrated into
the cell
- It consists of a thin silicon diaphragm of typical thickness 100 mm on a silicon
substrate.
- The diaphragm bends under the action of the measured pressure applied to it.
- this deflection is measured by measuring the capacitance change between the
diaphragm and a silicon beam above the diaphragm
The term vacuum gauge is applied commonly to describe any pressure
sensor designed to measure pressures in the vacuum range (pressures less
than atmospheric pressure, i.e., below 1.013 bar).
The thermocouple gauge is one of a group
of gauges working on the thermal
conductivity principle.

At low pressure, the kinematic theory of

gases predicts a linear relationship between
pressure and thermal conductivity.

Thus measurement of thermal conductivity

gives an indication of pressure
Operation of the gauge depends on the thermal conduction of heat
between a thin hot metal strip in the center and the cold outer surface of
a glass tube (that is normally at room temperature).
The metal strip is heated by passing a current through it and its
temperature is measured by a thermocouple.
The temperature measured depends on the thermal conductivity of the
gas in the tube and hence on its pressure
Measurement of pressures above 7000 bar is normally carried out electrically
by monitoring the change of resistance of wires of special materials.

Materials having resistance pressure characteristics that are suitably linear and
sensitive include manganin and gold–chromium alloys.

Pressures up to 30,000 bar can be measured by devices such as the manganin

wire pressure sensor, with a typical inaccuracy of ± 0.5%.

The unknown pressure is applied to one end of the bellows, which transmit
pressure to the coil. The magnitude of the applied pressure is then determined
by measuring the coil resistance.