ACADEMIC STYLE

Academic Vocabulary
Sentence Variety
Some Common Errors

ACADEMIC WRITING I
LANGUAGE CENTRE

Bailey (2015: 117-127);

Langan (2007: 162-208)
Academic Vocabulary
• In academic writing, formal vocabulary
or academic vocabulary is
recommended.
• Academic vocabulary may refer to
discipline-specific vocabulary (e.g.,
metaphysics, socialism, sedimentation,
assimilation, existentialism).
• Academic vocabulary may also refer to
common or generic vocabulary (e.g.,
analysis, abstract, evolve, demonstrate,
evidence, consistent).
Academic Vocabulary
• Vocabulary from all parts-of-
speech are important in
academic writing; nevertheless,
this lesson focuses on
vocabulary from the following
parts-of-speech:
• Nouns
• Adjectives
• Verbs
• Adverbs
Academic Vocabulary: Nouns
• Nouns refer.
• They function as subjects or objects in
sentences.
• A list of nouns that frequently occur in
academic writing could be found in Unit 2.1
(pages 117-118), Bailey (2015), The Essentials
of Academic Writing for International
Students.
• Read and complete all exercises/activities in
Unit 2.1.
Academic vocabulary:
Adjectives
• Adjectives modify nouns.
• They can function as predicates in
sentences.
• A list of adjectives that frequently
occur in academic writing could be
found in Unit 2.1 (page 121), Bailey
(2015), The Essentials of Academic
Writing for International Students.
• Read and complete all
exercises/activities in the Unit.
Academic Vocabulary: Verbs

Verbs denote.

They indicate state-of-affairs in sentences.

A list of verbs that may occur in academic writing
could be found in Unit 2.2 (pages 124-125),
Bailey (2015), The Essentials of Academic
Writing for International Students.
Read and complete all exercises/activities in Unit
2.2.
Academic vocabulary:
Reporting verbs
• Reporting verbs are used in
academic writing to report or to
refer to information from external
sources.
• The use of appropriate reporting
verbs enhances academic writing;
they sometimes reveal the writer’s
attitude towards the information
being reported.
Academic vocabulary:
Reporting verbs
• The following are examples of
reporting verbs:
assert
maintain
claim
argue
conclude
estimate
hypothesize
observe
disclose
Academic vocabulary: Reporting verbs
• The following sentences illustrate the use of reporting
verbs:
• Berry (1980) distinguishes five possible forms of
acculturation.
• It has been observed that verb serialization is
common in some African languages (Abassi, 2009).
• Boadi (1976) maintains that the aim of the scheme
was to provide sound foundation for citizens.
• Antwi (2012) argues that, from 1952 to 1957,
primary and middle school education witnessed
better growth than the previous years.
Academic vocabulary: Adverbs
• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs.
• They enhance clarity of expression in academic
writing.
• Adverbs may also function as transitions to
enhance cohesion in academic writing.
• A discussion of adverbs could be found in Unit 2.2
(pages 126-127), Bailey (2015), The Essentials of
Academic Writing for International Students.
• Read and complete all exercises/activities in Unit
2.2.
 Sentences
• The following three items will be
discussed under sentences:
• Some errors to avoid
• Sentence fragments
• Run-on sentences
• Sentence Variety
• Sentence fragments and run-on
sentences should be avoided in
academic writing.
• Sentence variety is recommended in
academic writing.
 • A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence which
has been punctuated like a complete sentence. A
fragment does not express a complete thought. The
Sentence following are examples of sentence fragments:
Fragments 1. Chocolates.
2. After seriously considering all the possible
options presented to us by the officer in
charge.
3. Waiting for a long time.
4. To receive the parcel.
5. For instance, energy stored in different forms.
6. All the students.
 • There are different types of
Types of Sentence sentence fragment. This lesson
Fragment discusses four types as follows:
• Dependent-clause fragment
• Participial fragment
• Infinitival fragment
• Added-detail fragment
• Missing-subject fragment
Dependent-clause fragments
• A dependent-clause fragment begins with a
subordinator. Examples of this type of fragment
are underlined as follows:
1. She entered the shop. When the door
opened.
2. Everyone will have to wait. Until they
finish playing the game.
3. Because it has been clearly explained.
There are fewer mistakes.
4. The bleeding stopped. After the nurse
arrived.
• Each of the fragments in the examples begin
with a subordinating word (when, until, because,
after).
Correcting dependent-clause
fragments
• One way to correct a dependent-clause fragment is to add it to the
sentence before it, as in example (1), or after it, as in example (2):
(1) She entered the shop when the door opened.
(2) Because it has been clearly explained, there are fewer
mistakes.
• Another way to correct a dependent-word fragment is to delete the
dependent word and form a new sentence, as in example (3).
(3) The door opened.
• Read further discussion of dependent-clause fragments from pages
162-166 of Langan (2007), Exploring writing: Sentences and
paragraphs. Complete all activities/exercises under the discussion.
 • They begin with non-finite verbs in the –ing
form, as exemplified below:
Participial 1) I spent some time in front of the
Fragments department building. Reading most of the
information on the notice board.
2) He appeared in a pensive mood. Imagining
how to get out of the situation.
3) It was better to have them all together.
Sitting next to one another.
 Infinitival Fragments

• These are fragments that begin

with the infinitive form of verbs
(preceded by the particle to), as
exemplified below:
1) You should regularly wash your
hands with soap under running
water. To avoid contracting
Coronavirus.
2) The team is training very hard. To
qualify for the next level of the
competition.
 Correcting participial and
infinitival fragments
• There are various ways of correcting participial or
infinitival fragments:
• One way is to attach the fragment to the sentence
before it, as in example (1), or after it, as in example
(2):
1) I spent some time in front of the department
building reading most of the information on
the notice board.
2) You should regularly wash your hands with
soap under running water to avoid
contracting Coronavirus.
 Correcting participial and
infinitival fragments
• Another method of correction is to turn the fragment
into a complete sentence by adding a subject and using a
correct form of the verb, as in example (3).
3) I read most of the information on the notice board.
• In example (3), the subject ‘I’ and the appropriate verb
form ‘read’ have been used to eliminate the fragment.
• Read further discussion of –ing and to fragments from
pages 167-169 of Langan (2007), Exploring writing:
Sentences and paragraphs. Complete all
activities/exercises under the discussion.
 Added-detail
Fragments
• A fragment may occur when details are added
to sentences. The following are examples of
added-detail fragments:
1) The students asked relevant questions.
Such as how to avoid plagiarism.
2) He gave an elaborate explanation.
Especially on the use of quotation marks.
 Correcting Added-detail
Fragments
• One way of correction is to make the fragment part
of the preceding sentence, as illustrated in examples
(1) and (2):
1) The students asked relevant questions, such as
how to avoid plagiarism.
2) He gave an elaborate explanation, especially on
the use of quotation marks.
• Read further discussion of added-detail fragments
from pages 169-171 of Langan (2007), Exploring
writing: Sentences and paragraphs. Complete all
activities/exercises under the discussion.
 Missing-subject Fragments
• Missing-subject fragments lack subject. The
examples below illustrate missing-subject
fragment:
1) The poet opened the page. And
began to read aloud.
2) Members of the association
contributed various items. And
donated them to the needy in their
community.
 Correcting missing-subject
fragments
One way to correct a missing subject
fragment is to attach the fragment to
the preceding sentence to make it part
of that sentence, as illustrated below:
1) The poet opened the page
and began to read aloud.
2) Members of the association
contributed various items
and donated them to the
needy in their community.
 Correcting Missing-
subject Fragments
Another method of correction is to add a subject to
the fragment to make it a complete sentence, as
illustrated below:
1) The poet opened the page. He began
to read aloud.
2) Members of the association
contributed various items. They
donated them to the needy in their
community.
• Read further discussion of missing-subject
fragments from pages 171-173 of Langan (2007),
Exploring writing: Sentences and paragraphs.
Complete all activities/exercises under the
discussion.
Errors to avoid: Run-on sentences
• Run-on sentences are sentences
containing two ore more complete
thoughts with no adequate
punctuation or joining words to
mark the end of each sentence.
• There are two types of run-ons,
namely:
• Fused sentences
• Comma splices
 Run-ons: Fused
Sentences
• A fused sentence is two or more
complete thoughts or complete
sentences that are written together
with no punctuation mark to separate
them or to mark the end of each
sentence. The following is an example
of a fused sentence:
1) One of the children responded
he was separated from the rest.
 Run-ons: Comma Splices

• A comma splice occurs when a comma is

used to separate complete sentences or
complete thoughts, as illustrated below:

• One of the children responded, he was

separated from the rest.
 The are various ways of correcting
run-ons. One way is to use a period
and a capital letter to separate the
sentences or the complete thoughts.
Correcting This is illustrated below:
Run-ons • One of the children responded. He
was separated from the rest.
 • Another method is to use a comma
plus a joining word, as in the
Correcting example below:
Run-ons • One of the children responded, so he
was separated from the rest.
 Correcting Run-ons
• Another method is to use a semicolon, as in the
example below:
• One of the children responded; he was
separated from the rest.
• Read further discussion of run-ons from pages
179-181 of Langan (2007), Exploring writing:
Sentences and paragraphs. Complete all
activities/exercises under the discussion.
 Sentence Variety
• Sentences may be classified into
the following types:
• Simple sentence
• Compound sentence
• Complex sentence
• Compound-complex sentence
• In order to ensure sentence variety,
students should include all the
various types of sentences in their
academic writing.
• The discussion that follows explains
the different types of sentences.
 Sentence variety: Simple sentence
• A simple sentence is made up of one complete sentence; it is
made of an independent clause; that is, it can stand on its
own.
• A simple sentence has a subject and a predicate.
• Each of the following is an example of a simple sentence:
1) Birds fly.
2) The nurse arrived.
3) I filled the bucket.
4) Boys and girls like singing and dancing together.
5) The students submitted their assignments on time.
6) They donated them to the needy in their
community.
 Sentence Variety: Compound sentence

• A compound sentence is composed of two simple sentences or two independent clauses

joined together by a coordinate conjunction, such as ‘but’, ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘so’, ‘yet’, ‘nor’, and
‘for’.
• The following are examples of compound sentences:
1) She did not have enough money, yet she was able to buy all the things on the
shopping list.
2) One of the children responded, so he was separated from the rest.
3) I spent some time in front of the department building, and I read most of the
information on the notice board.
 Sentence variety: Complex
sentence
A complex sentence is composed of a simple sentence (or an
independent clause) and a dependent clause. The following are
examples oF complex sentences:
1) She entered the shop when the door opened.
2) When the door opened, she entered the shop.
3) Everyone will have to wait until they finish playing the
game.
4) Because it has been clearly explained, there are fewer
mistakes.
5) The bleeding stopped after the nurse arrived.

• Read further on sentence variety from pages 195-208 of Langan

(2007), Exploring writing: Sentences and paragraphs. Complete
all activities/exercises under the discussion.
 Compound-complex
Sentences
• A compound complex contains multiple ideas. It is
made up of at least three clauses, which comprises at
least two independent clauses joined by any of the
coordinators, and at least one dependent clause.
• Examples are as follows:
• I went to the bus stop on time but I missed the
bus because it left earlier today.
• Cassy called Nelly and both of them visited their
grandmother since it was the old lady’s birthday.
 Conclusion: Summary
• Students should use appropriate academic vocabulary,
including appropriate reporting verbs, to enhance their
academic writing.
• Students should avoid sentence fragments and run-on
sentences in their academic writing; they should ensure
correcting all such errors in their academic writing.
• Students should employ sentence variety (simple
sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences
and compound-complex sentences) in their academic
writing.