Chapter 7.

Forage Management
Lesson 4. Pest Management

Here is where your presentation begins

 Pest Management
 Integrated Pest Management
A pest management philosophy that utilizes all
suitable pest management techniques and methods to
keep pest populations economically injurious levels.
Each pest management technique must be
environmentally sound and compatible with
objectives
 Pest Management
 Why practice IPM?
 Maintains balanced ecosystem
 Pesticides alone may be in effective
 Promotes a healthy environment

 What is pest ?
 Any organism that is detrimental to humans, destroys crops and structures
 Poses threats to human health and livestock
 Pest includes insects(arthropods), pathogens, weeds and vertebrates
 Pest Management
Four Major Pest Categories
1. Weeds: undesirable plants
 Grass- Poaceae or Gramineae is a large and nearly ubiquitous
family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known
as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos, the grasses of
natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns and pasture.
 Sedges- Cyperaceae are a family of graminoid,
monocotyledonous flowering plants known as sedges. Ex:
nutsedges
 Broadleaves - those with leaves that have a flat, relatively
broad surface.
Grass – Sedges - Broadleaves
 Pest Management
Four Major Pest Categories
2. Invertebrates, such as:
 Insects
 Spiders and mites
 Sowbugs, pillbugs
 Snails, slugs, and mussels
 Pest Management
Four Major Pest Categories
3. Vertebrates, such as :
 Birds
 Snakes
 Rodents and other mammals
 Pest Management
Four Major Pest Categories
4. Plant Diseases
 Pathogens (phytopathogens) – microorganisms
that caused plant diseases.
 Fungi
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Nematodes
 Powdery Mildew Bacterial Canker Yellow Dwarf Virus

Root knot caused by nematodes Corn Smut caused by fungi Bacterial Leaf Streak &
Black Chaff in Wheat
 Pest Management

INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES

`Pests and diseases of pastures can severely impact their
productivity and the profitability of an enterprise. The types of pests
and diseases that affect pastures vary depending on the type of pasture, the
region and the season.

Pests and diseases can have a significant effect on the establishment,

yield and longevity of grass and forage crops. In grassland, new reseeds
are most vulnerable to attack and problems are more likely to occur where
grass is the main crop in the area and particularly when grass follows grass.
 Pest Management
INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES
 Infestation of pests, diseases and weeds in fodder /seed crops- cause
enormous losses and aggravates the availability of green fodder and
quality fodder seeds.
 Hence, there is a need to control infestation of pests, diseases and weeds
using environmental friendly technologies.
 Few such technologies for insect, disease and weed control have been
standardized for commercial application which when used in
conjunction with other pest control measures prove to be more economic
and effective. Such eco-friendly technologies are economically
sustainable and known as Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
 Pest Management
INSECT PESTS
 Pasture pests include vertebrates, invertebrates, weeds and
diseases.
 Beneficial insects – insects that live in pasture that benefits
pasture growth by preying on pests. Ex: carabid beetles,
predatory mites, native earwigs, brown lacewings, ladybird
beetles and parasitic wasps
 While insecticides can be used to control pest species, they will
also usually affect beneficial insects. An integrated approach to
pest control that minimizes insecticide use is often the most
effective and sustainable approach.
 Natural Enemies

a. Parasitoids – biological control agents that require

only one host to complete their life cycle
b. Predators – biological control agents that
consume several hosts to complete their life cycle
c. Pathogen – microorganisms that cause disease
on other organisms
 Natural Enemies
a. Parasitoids: an organism that has young that
develop on or within another organism (the
host), eventually killing it.
b. Predators: such as Carabidae (ground beetles)
A TOBACCO HORNWORM THAT HAS BEEN KILLED
and Staphylinidae (rove beetles) help to control BY COTESIA LARVAE WHICH HAVE PUPATED OUTSIDE
THE HOST. CREDIT R. BESSIN
the populations of many insects by feeding on
caterpillars and other immature insects (larvae),
many soft-bodied adult insects, and insect eggs
c. Pathogen: An organism (generally a bacterium,
virus, protozoan or fungus) causing disease in
rove beetle
insects.
Fungi: . Beauveria bassiana is a fungus that grows
naturally in soils throughout the world and acts as a
parasite on various arthropod species, causing white
muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the group of
entomopathogenic fungi.
 Four Major Pest Categories
1. Weeds - A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a
particular situation, growing where it conflicts with
human preferences, needs, or goals.
a. Grasses. They are usually upright, cylindrical, with
alternating leaves, anchored to the soil by roots.
Grasses have leaves (blades that narrow into a sheath),
a stem (culm), a collar region (where leaves attach to
the stem), roots, tillers, and during the reproductive
stage an inflorescence or seedhead develops.
Ex: Bermuda Grass - long grass weed with a dark green
color but turns brown in the winter when it goes dormant.
It spreads rapidly, especially in warmer climates and on
low-mown lawns.
 Four Major Pest Categories

Weeds
b. Sedges - a type of grass that has triangular leaves
and grows in bunches or tussocks. They are resistant
to many herbicides and can be difficult to control.
c. Broadleaf weeds, as their name suggests, Cyperus odoratus

often have wide leaves and grow from a stem.

Most broadleaf weeds develop clusters of
blossoms or single flowers as they mature that
can be considered undesirable.

Amaranth
 Four Major Pest Categories
2. Invertebrates (including many types of insects and worms) are viewed solely as pests,
and by the early 21st century the heavy use of pesticides worldwide had caused
substantial population declines among bees, wasps, and other terrestrial insects.
 Arthropods/Insects -invertebrates in the phylum Arthropoda. They possess
an exoskeleton with a cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium
carbonate, a body with differentiated segments, and paired jointed
appendages.
 Gastropods-commonly known as slugs and snails, belong to a large
taxonomic class of invertebrates within the phylum Mollusca called
Gastropoda. This class comprises snails and slugs from saltwater, freshwater,
and from the land.
 Spider and Predatory Mites (Arachnida)- arthropods in the class Arachnida
of the subphylum Chelicerata. Arachnida includes, among others, spiders,
scorpions, ticks, mites, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, camel spiders, whip
spiders and vinegaroons.
 Four Major Pest Categories

3. Vertebrates -such as
bird, snakes, fish, rodents
 Four Major Pest Categories
4. Plant Diseases - Diseases and
deficiencies pose a similar risk as pests
and should be monitored when checking
pastures for pests. Diseases can generally
be classified as leaf diseases such as rusts
or root diseases such as wilt or root rot.

 Pathogens- living agents(Biotic Agents)

like for example:
 Fungi
 Bacteria
 Nematodes
 Viruses
 Non-living agents/Abiotic Agents –
 Too much water
 Too much drought
Management for disease control should be both proactive and reactive.
 Proactive control begins prior to pasture establishment and takes into
consideration paddock and disease history as well as pasture species
selection for disease resistance.
 Reactive disease control involves managing outbreaks and may
include strategic grazing and chemical application. In extreme cases,
cultivation and cropping may be required to break a disease cycle.
 Where chemicals are used to control pests and diseases, be careful to
abide by all export slaughter intervals (ESI) and withholding periods
(WHP) associated with the particular chemical.
Disease management if often limited for forage and pasture crops.

 Resistance
 Check wit breeder
 Environment can be important
 Fungicides
 Limits for feeding (Read Label)
 Better as preventive
 Rotation
 Irrigation/Fertilization
Plant Diseases(Take-all root rot (Bermudagrass decline)
 Fungal disease caused by Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis
 Key diagnostics are yellow symptoms in spring and lobed hyphopodia
on stolons
 It can look like or be associated with cold/freeze damage
 Take-all can be found with other diseases and pests (i.e. stem
maggot).
 So, it is important to consider these problems in your management
strategies
 Best management plan is to avoid stressing the plants.
 Minimal herbicide use is important
 Use acidified fertilizers & do not
 Do not over fertilize
 Mow & regrow to manage this pest
 Fungicides minimal impact
 When it is cold and dry, expect this pathogen to appear. No resistant varieties available.
 Plant Diseases

Bipolaris is a common problem on oats, & can cause significant reductions.

• Often found on debris and dying leaves
• Can move to roots under right conditions.
 Plant Diseases

Crown rust on oats

• Favored under cool (50 to 75 F) and wet
(dew & rain) conditions.
• Both Bipolaris and Rust can be found at the
same time.
 Weeds
 Weeds can replace desirable grass species, filling in gaps or
voids and reducing yield and overall quality of pasture and
forages. Weeds can produce allelopathic substances that are
toxic to crop plants.
 Weed competition in pasture systems has not been extensively
examined. In pasture, weed control decisions are based largely
on visual thresholds and intuition. Weeds can compete directly
with forage grasses or pasture to reduce their nutritional value
and longevity. However, the impacts of weed species, density,
and soil and climatic factors are not well established in pasture
systems.
 Weeds
 In general, biennial and perennial weeds pose the biggest
problems for pasture producers. Both biennials and perennials
produce seed each year, potentially starting new infestations.
 Pasture-invading weed species should be assessed for their
competitive ability, or their potential to reduce desirable forage
species; their invasiveness--their potential to multiply and
increase; their yield, quality, and nutritive value relative to
desirable forage species; and the cost and effectiveness of
control measures--cultural, mechanical, and chemical.
General rules about weed competition in forages include:
 Assess weed competitive ability, invasiveness, nutritive value, and
potential to control.
 Weeds that emerge with the crop in the spring are generally more
destructive.
 Control problem weeds for the first 60 days after seedling
establishment.
 Weeds that emerge beyond 60 days after establishment will not
influence that year's forage yield.
 Later-emerging weeds may still influence forage quality.
 Winter-annual weed competition in early spring is most damaging to
early-season forage yield.
 Broadleaf weeds that are biennial or perennial are generally more
competitive than grassy weeds.
 WEED QUALITY
 Unlike most grain or fiber crops from which weeds are separated at harvest, weeds
are often harvested along with forage crops, potentially reducing quality. In the
case of pasture, they remain in the field where they continue to interfere with
desirable forage. Reductions in quality often take the form of lower protein
content, feed digestibility, or even reduced intake by the animals.
 Although weeds do have some feed value, the value differs among species.
The feed value of many pasture species has not been extensively studied.
However, based on traditional forage quality measures, crude protein and
digestibility, many weeds are nutritious and readily digested during the
growing season. Wild carrot ( Daucus carota), a common pasture weed in
some fields, has about 16 percent crude protein in the vegetative stage.
Common yarrow ( Achillea millefolium) has only about 10 percent crude
protein during the flowering stage.
 Poisonous Plants
 Many plants contain poisonous substances that may be toxic to
livestock if consumed. In addition, certain plants may be
problematic because of mechanical irritation when eaten,
photosensitization, and disagreeable tastes or odors in meat,
milk, or milk products.
 If you suspect livestock poisoning, call a veterinarian
immediately. If death occurs, the stomach contents should be
examined for consumed herbage. Identify the suspected
plants and remove livestock from the grazing area until all
poisonous plants have been removed or destroyed.
 WEED MANAGEMENT
 Managing weeds in pasture systems begins long before
crop establishment. Certain types of weeds are potentially
serious problems for forages, so it is important to eliminate
them in advance.
 If these weeds are not removed before the seeding is
made, they can persist for many years. The cost of
controlling weeds before or at the time of seeding should be
considered an investment that will be returned for the life
of the forage.
 Cultural Management
 Cultural practices that aid
in weed control include
anything that makes the
Plastic Mulching & Organic Mulching
crop more competitive
against weeds.

Hand Hoeing & Hand Weeding

Pruning, Hand picking & Trap

 Preparing the seedbed properly
 Provide a seedbed at planting that is free of live weeds. A
weed-free seedbed can be achieved using either tillage or a
burndown herbicide.
 It is important that emerging forage species not have to compete
for limited resources as they try to gain a foothold in the early
weeks of establishment. In addition, emerged vegetation can
harbor certain insects or pathogens that could attack young,
susceptible forage seedlings.
 Planting at the optimum planting date
 Date of planting can influence the kinds and numbers of weeds that
emerge. Most grass and legume forage species are relatively slow to
establish.
 For example, if the field has been planted to corn or some other summer
annual crop, then summer annual weeds will likely be the biggest weed
threat during establishment. Late summer may be a better time for
establishment in this situation.
 In spring seedings, plant early before summer annuals emerge to give the
new forage seedlings every advantage. With late summer seedings, plant
before September, the month during which winter annual weeds
generally begin to emerge. The weed species present in a field, along with
its potential severity, may help determine the best time for planting.
 Planting at the optimum planting date

In established pasture systems, prevention is the

most important tool for managing weeds. The
pasture weeds can be controlled by increasing
forage competition.
In fact, crop growth rate stands as the single best
measure of plant response to weed competition in
forages. Maintaining a dense, competitive forage
is a key to preventing weed invasion and
interference.
 Planting at the optimum planting date
 Weeds are opportunistic. Germination and establishment are favored by
open areas and by disturbance.
 Overseed with desirable forage species when necessary to keep open
areas at a minimum.
 Rotationally graze to keep traffic effects minimal, and do not overgraze
to ensure that forages remain competitive with weeds. Test soils for
nutrients and annually fertilize to keep forage stands healthy and
competitive.
 Control harmful insects or pathogens when necessary, they weaken forage
stands and give weeds the opportunity to establish.
 Develop monitoring programs to locate infestations and place priority on
controlling small infestations so that they do not expand.
 Planting at the optimum planting date
 Preventing weed infestations also means preventing dispersal of seeds or
vegetative structures into uninfested areas.
 Vehicles, humans, wind, water, birds, and livestock can spread weed seeds.
 Animals may disperse seeds by picking them up in their coats or fur, or
between the pads of their feet.
 Cattle have been shown to readily pick up burs of several weeds when grazing
forested range.
 Clean infested animals regularly, particularly new animals that may be carrying
new weed problems.
 Ruminants also ingest weed seeds in the field, between 5 and 15 percent pass
safely through sheep, goats, cattle, and deer. Be cautious of feed or hay infested
with noxious weed seed.
 Mowing and Hand Removal

 Once forages are up and established, systematic

mowing helps to control weeds.
 Mowing is the act of cutting down (grass, crops) with
the hand implement or machine.
 Repeated mowing reduces weeds' competitive ability,
depletes carbohydrate reserves in their roots, and
prevents them from producing seed. Some weeds,
mowed when they are young, are consumed and
enjoyed by livestock.
 Mowing can kill or suppress annual and biennial
weeds. It can also suppress perennials and help
restrict their spread. Mow at a height above the
grass seedlings when weeds are 8 to 10 inches in
height to reduce shading by weeds.
 Mowing and Hand Removal
 A single mowing will not satisfactorily control most
weeds. However, mowing three or four times per year
over several years can greatly reduce and occasionally
eliminate certain weeds.
 Also, mow along fences and borders to help prevent the
introduction of new weed seeds. Regular mowing helps
prevent weeds from establishing, spreading, and
competing with desirable grasses and legumes.
 Mowing and Hand Removal
 Finally, hand removal may be the easiest and most
economical way to control some weeds. When few plants
are present or if you see a potential new weed, dig it, pull it,
or remove the seedhead before the seed can disperse.
 This technique works particularly well for annuals and
biennials. For perennials, it may be difficult to remove all
vegetative structures effectively.
 Properly dispose of weeds after removal to prevent seed or
vegetative structure dispersal. This may mean burning,
burying, or transporting them to local landfills.
 Herbicides
 Herbicides provide a convenient, economical, and
effective way to help manage weeds. They allow fields
to be planted with less tillage, allow earlier planting
dates, and provide additional time to perform the other
tasks that farm or personal life require.
 Herbicides may not be a necessity on some farms, but
without the use of chemical weed control, mechanical
and cultural control methods become that much more
important.
 Herbicides
 In pasture systems, a number of herbicides are available for broadleaf
weed control in grass forages.
 Few are available for mixed grass-legume combinations or for the
control of grassy weeds in grass forages.
 Before establishment, herbicide choices are limited to those controlling
emerged vegetation.
 Preplant soil residual herbicides are not common for pasture systems.
 Most herbicides for pasture systems should be applied postemergence
to the weeds and crop once the forage is well established. In pasture
systems, spot spraying may be the most economical al ternative for
scattered infestations of weeds.
 Herbicides
 Young annual weeds in the seedling stage are
most susceptible to control with herbicides.
Spray biennial weeds in the rosette stage prior
to bolting.
 Perennials are most susceptible to control with
systemic herbicides in the bud to bloom stage
or in early fall.
 Most herbicides for broadleaf control in grass
pasture systems should not be applied to
seedling forage grass until visible tillers are
present.
 Established forage grasses and legumes are more
herbicide tolerant than seedling forages.
 Biological Control
 It is the deliberate introduction or manipulation of a pest's natural
enemies, with the goal of suppressing the pest population.
 It has been used to manage insects, vertebrates (mice and rats),
pathogens, and weeds. Biological control is not intended to eradicate
the target weed, but rather to exert enough pressure on the pest to reduce
its dominance to a more acceptable level.
 Biological control can be cost effective, environmentally safe, self-
perpetuating, and well suited to an integrated weed management
program.
 Its limitations are that it is a long-term undertaking, its effects are
neither immediate nor always adequate, only certain weeds are
potential candidates, and the rate of failure for past biological control
efforts has been fairly high.
 Natural Enemies

Predator, Pathogen and Parasitoids

Maybe You Need to Divide the Content

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Mercury is the closest Venus has a beautiful name
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 Understandable Infographics
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 Your Collection

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 02
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 This Is a Table

ANIMAL VACCINATION

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