Hubble Deep Field

billions of galaxies within

a few degrees in the
darkest part of the sky
 In this chapter you will discover…
 how galaxies are categorized by their shapes
 the processes that produce galaxies of different
shapes
 that galaxies are found in clusters that contain
huge amounts of dark matter
 why clusters of galaxies form in superclusters •
how some galaxies merge and others devour
their neighbors
 that the universe is changing size
 Spiral Galaxies (Nearly Face-on Views)

Edwin Hubble classified spiral galaxies according to the tightness of

their spiral arms and the sizes of their nuclear bulges. Sa galaxies
have the largest nuclear bulges and the most tightly wound spiral
arms, whereas Sc galaxies have the smallest nuclear bulges and
the least tightly wound arms. The images are different colors
because they were taken through filters that pass different colors.
 Andromeda (M31)

Andromeda is a beautiful spiral galaxy and the only galaxy visible to the naked
eye from Earth’s northern hemisphere. It has dim, red giant stars (not visible
here) extending half a million light-years from its nucleus. Without a telescope,
Andromeda appears to be a fuzzy blob in the constellation of the same name.
Located only 2.5 Mly (0.77 Mpc) from us, Andromeda is gravitationally bound
to the Milky Way, and it covers an area in the sky roughly 5 times as large as
the full Moon. Two other galaxies, M32 and M110, are also labeled on this
photograph. The points of light that pepper the image are stars in our Galaxy.
 Spiral Galaxies Seen Nearly Edge-on from the Milky Way

a) Because of its large nuclear bulge, this galaxy (called the Sombrero Galaxy)
is classified as an Sa. If we could see it face-on, the spiral arms would be tightly
wound around a voluminous bulge. (b) Note the smaller nuclear bulge in this Sb
galaxy. (c) At visible wavelengths, interstellar dust obscures the relatively
insignificant nuclear bulge of this Sc galaxy.
 Variety in Spiral Arms

The differences in spiral galaxies suggest that at least two mechanisms create
spiral arms. (a) This flocculent spiral galaxy has fuzzy, poorly defined spiral
arms. (b) This grand-design spiral galaxy has well-defined
spiral arms.
 The Winding Dilemma

The rotation curve of the disk stars in our Galaxy indicates that most of
them have the same linear (straight-line) speed. Those farther from the
center take longer to go around because they have a greater distance to
travel at the same speed than stars closer to the center of the Galaxy,
which orbit in smaller circles. All four dots in these drawings have circular
orbits at the same linear speed. Think of them as (a) a few stars initially in a
straight line. As time goes on, the outer stars are left behind, creating (b-d)
a spiral shape that becomes more and more tightly wound. Such tightening
is not observed in our Galaxy or in other galaxies.
 Ripples in Water

The usual circular ripples Ripples in rotating water creating

expanding from the place where a spiral arms, as do ripples in the gas
rock was thrown into the water. and dust of a disk galaxy.
 Compression Wave in Traffic Flow

When normal traffic flow is slowed down, cars bunch together. In

a grand design galaxy, a density wave moves through the stars
and gas. The wave is merely a region of slightly denser matter,
which, in turn, creates more gravitational force. This force
compresses the gas and enhances star formation, which
highlights the spiral density wave.
Dynamics of a Grand-Design Spiral Galaxy
 Barred Spiral Galaxies

As with spiral galaxies, Edwin Hubble classified barred spirals according to

the tightness of their spiral arms (which correlates with the sizes of their
nuclear bulges). SBa galaxies have the most tightly wound spirals and
largest nuclear bulges, SBb have moderately tight spirals and medium-
sized nuclear bulges, and SBc galaxies have the least tightly wound spirals
and the smallest nuclear bulges.
 Giant Elliptical Galaxies

The Virgo cluster is a rich, sprawling collection of more than

2000 galaxies about 50 million light-years from Earth. Only the
center of this huge cluster appears in this photograph. The two
largest galaxies in the cluster are the giant elliptical galaxies
M84 and M86.
 A Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy

This nearby E4 galaxy, called Leo I, is about 600,000 light-

year from Earth. It is only 3000 light-year in diameter and is
so sparsely populated with stars that you can see right
through its center. It is a satellite of the Milky Way.
 Elliptical Galaxies

Hubble classified elliptical galaxies according to how round or elongated

they appear. An E0 galaxy is round; a very elongated elliptical galaxy is
an E7. Three examples are shown.
 Irregular Galaxies

(a) At a distance of only 179,000 light-years, the Large Magellanic Cloud

(LMC), an Irr I irregular galaxy, is the third closest known companion of our
Milky Way Galaxy. About 62,000 light-years across, the LMC spans 22°
across the sky, about 44 times the angular size of the full Moon. Note the
huge H II region (called the Tarantula Nebula or 30 Doradus). Its diameter
of 800 light-years and mass of 5 million solar masses make it the largest
known H II region. (b) The small irregular (Irr II) galaxy NGC 4485 interacts
with the highly distorted Sc galaxy NGC 4490, also called the Cocoon
Galaxy. This pair is located in the constellation Canes Venatici.
 Hubble’s Tuning Fork Diagram

Hubble summarized his classification scheme for galaxies with this tuning fork
diagram. Elliptical galaxies are classified by how oval they appear, whereas
spirals and barred spirals are classified by the sizes of their central bulges and
the correlated winding of their spiral arms. An S0 or SB0 galaxy, also called
lenticular galaxy, is an intermediate type between ellipticals and spirals. It has a
disk but no spiral arms.
 A Cluster of Galaxies

This group of galaxies, called the Fornax cluster, is about 60

million light-years from Earth. Both elliptical and spiral galaxies
are easily identified. The barred spiral galaxy at the lower left is
NGC 1365, the largest and most impressive member of the
cluster.
 Superclusters in Our Neighborhood

This diagram shows the distances and relative positions of superclusters within
950 million light-years of Earth. Note also the labeling of some of the voids, which
are large, relatively empty regions between superclusters.
 Structure in the Universe

This map shows the distribution of 62,559 galaxies in

two wedges extending in opposite directions from
Earth out to distances of 2 billion light-years. Note the
prominent voids surrounded by thin areas full of
galaxies.
Foamy Structure of the Universe

A sponge that recreates the distribution of bright

clusters of galaxies throughout the universe. The
empty spaces in the foam are analogous to the voids
found throughout the universe. The spongy regions
are analogous to the locations of most of the galaxies.
 The Local Group

Our Galaxy belongs to a poor, irregular cluster that consists of about 40 galaxies,
called the Local Group. This map shows the distribution of about three-quarters
of the galaxies. The Andromeda Galaxy (M31) is the largest and most massive
galaxy in the Local Group. The second largest is the Milky Way itself. M31 and
the Milky Way are each surrounded by a dozen satellite galaxies. The recently
discovered Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy is the Milky Way’s nearest known
neighbor.
A Recently Discovered Member of the Local Group

The galaxy Antlia was first

detected in 1997. It lies
about 3 million light-years
away, outside the region
depicted in Figure 16-19.
This galaxy contains only
about a million stars.
 The Coma Cluster

(a) This rich, regular cluster that contains thousands of galaxies is about 300
million light-years from Earth. (b) Regular clusters are composed mostly of
elliptical and lenticular galaxies and are sources of X rays. This Chandra
image of Coma’s central region is 1.5 million light-years across. The gas
cloud emitting most of these X rays is 100 million K.
 The Hercules Cluster

This irregular cluster, which is about 700 million light-

years from Earth, contains a high proportion of spiral
galaxies, often associated in pairs and small groups.
 A Composite Image of the Cartwheel Galaxy

This ring-shaped assemblage

500 million light-years from
Earth is the likely result of one
galaxy, probably the blue-white
one below it at the eight o’clock
position, having passed through
the middle of the larger one.
Astronomers suspect that the
passage created a circular
density wave in the Cartwheel
that stimulated a burst of star
formation, creating many bright
blue and white stars.
 A Starburst Galaxy

A ring of vigorous star formation 2400 light-years wide highlights this

stunning ultraviolet, visible light, and infrared composite image of
the core of the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1512 taken by the Hubble
Space Telescope. This galaxy may have recently passed close to
the nearby NGC 1510. They are located 30 Mly away in the
constellation Horologium. NGC 1512 is 70,000 light-years across.
Such rings of star formation are common in starburst galaxies.
 The M81 Group

The Irr II, starburst galaxy M82 is in a nearby cluster of about a dozen
galaxies, including the spectacular spiral M81. Several of the galaxies in
this cluster are connected by streamers of hydrogen gas. (a) Three
brightest galaxies at visual wavelengths. (b) This radio image, created
from data taken by the Very Large Array, shows the streamers of
hydrogen gas that connect the bright galaxies and also several dim ones,
seen as regions of bright orange here.
 Interacting and Colliding Galaxies

Pairs of colliding galaxies often exhibit long “antennae” of stars

ejected by the collision. This particular system is known as NGC
4676 or “the Mice” (because of its tails of stars and gas). It is 300
million light-years from Earth in the constellation Coma
Berenices. The collision has stimulated a firestorm of new star
formation, as can be seen in the bright blue regions. Mass can
also be seen flowing between the two galaxies, which will
eventually merge.
 Interacting and Colliding Galaxies

These two galaxies, NGC 2207 (right) and IC 2163, are orbiting
and tidally distorting each other. Their most recent close encounter
occurred 40 million years ago when the two were perpendicular to
each other and about 1 galactic diameter apart. Computer
simulations indicate that they should eventually coalesce.
 Merging Galaxies

This contorted object, NGC 6240, in the constellation Ophiuchus is the

result of two spiral galaxies in the process of merging. The widespread
blue area reveals that the collision between the two galaxies has
triggered an immense burst of star formation. Inset: The Chandra X-
ray telescope has revealed that at the heart of this system are two
supermassive black holes. Within a few hundred million years, these
black holes are expected to merge into one more massive black hole.
 Simulated Galactic Cannibalism

This computer simulation shows a small galaxy (yellow stars)

being devoured by a larger, disk-shaped galaxy (blue stars, white
gas). Note how spiral arms are generated in the disk galaxy by
its interaction with the satellite galaxy.
The Rotation Curves of Four Spiral Galaxies

This graph shows how the orbital speed of material in the disks
of four spiral galaxies varies with the distance from the center
of each galaxy. If most of each galaxy’s mass were concentrated
near the center of the galaxy, these curves would fall off at
large distances. But these and many other galaxies have flat
rotation curves that do not fall off. This indicates the presence
of extended halos of dark matter.
Gravitational Lensing of Extremely Distant Galaxies

Schematic of how a gravitational lens works. Light from the

distant object changes direction due to the gravitational
attraction of the intervening galaxy and underlying dark
matter. The more distant galaxy appears in two places to the
observer on the right.
Gravitational Lensing of Extremely Distant Galaxies

Three examples of gravitational lensing: (1) The bluer arc is a

galaxy that has been lensed by the redder elliptical galaxy. (2) A
pair of bluish images of the same object lensed symmetrically by
the brighter, redder galaxy between them. (3) The lensed object
appears as a blue arc under the gravitational influence of the group
of four galaxies.
Gravitational Lensing of Extremely Distant Galaxies

Superimposed in blue on this image of the galaxy cluster

CL 002417 is the location of dark matter that is
gravitationally lensing the galaxies behind it.
 Five Galaxies and Their Spectra

The photographs of these five

elliptical galaxies were all taken at
the same magnification. They are
labeled according to the
constellation in which each galaxy is
located. The spectrum of each
galaxy is the hazy band between the
comparison spectra at the top and
bottom of each plate. In all five
cases, the so-called H and K lines of
calcium are seen. The recessional
velocity (calculated from the Doppler
shifts of the H and K lines) appears
below each spectrum. Note that the
fainter— and thus more distant—a
galaxy is, the greater is its redshift.
 The Hubble Law

The distances and recessional velocities of distant galaxies are

plotted on this graph. The straight line is the “best fit” for the data.
This linear relationship between distance and speed is called the
Hubble law. For historical reasons, distances between galaxies,
clusters of galaxies, and superclusters of galaxies are usually
given in megaparsecs, Mpc, rather than millions of light-years.
 Two Supernovae in NGC 664

In 1997 the rare occurrence of two supernovae in the same galaxy at

the same time was observed in the spiral galaxy NGC 664, located
about 300 Mly (90 Mpc) from Earth. Supernovae observed in remote
galaxies are important standard candles used by astronomers to
determine the distances to these faraway objects. The two supernovae
overlap each other, as shown. The upper, yellow-orange supernova
was observed to occur 2 months before the hotter, blue one, which was
observed to occur less than 2 weeks before this image was made and
had not yet achieved maximum brightness.
Techniques for Measuring Cosmological Distances

Astronomers use different methods to determine different

distances in the universe. All of the methods shown here
are discussed in the text.
 Distant Galaxies

(a) The young cluster of galaxies MS1054-03, shown on the left, contains many
orbiting pairs of galaxies, as well as remnants of recent galaxy collisions.
Several of these systems are shown at the right .This cluster is located 8 billion
light-years away from Earth. (b) This image of more than 300 spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies contains several that are an estimated 12 billion light-
years from Earth. Two of the most distant galaxies are shown in the images on
the right, in red,at the centers of the pictures.
 The Expanding Chocolate Chip Cake Analogy

The expanding universe can be compared to a chocolate chip cake baking

and expanding in the International Space Station. Just as all of the chocolate
chips move apart as the cake rises, all of the superclusters of galaxies
recede from each other as the universe expands.
 Active Galactic Nuclei
Active galaxies are classified into three types:
Seyfert galaxies, radio galaxies, and quasars.

Seyfert galaxies
resemble normal spiral
galaxies, but their
cores are thousands of
times more luminous:

Circunus
NGC 7742 Seyfert-type
Active Galactic Nuclei
The rapid variations in the
luminosity of Seyfert galaxies
indicate that the core must be
extremely compact:

3 ly
1963 Schmidt measured Balmer lines shifted by z = 0.158
 Active Galactic Nuclei

In 1962 Maarten Schmidt realized that quasar spectra were Balmer lines, except
redshifted: z = 0.158 an unprecedented shift
 3C 273 in Virgo
KPNO

200 kly

BH

m = 12.9 M = -26.7 z = 0.158

2.44 Gly 1.6e39 W = 160 LG
 Active Galactic Nuclei
About 20-25% of galaxies don’t fit well into the
Hubble scheme – they are far too luminous.
Such galaxies are
called active galaxies.
They differ from normal
galaxies in both the
luminosity and type of
radiation they emit:
Active galaxies are far more luminous than
normal galaxies, and their radiation is nonstellar
synchrotron non-thermal
(i.e. not blackbody)
• Seyfert galaxies, radio galaxies, and quasars all
have very small cores; many emit high-speed jets
• Active galaxies are thought to contain
supermassive black holes in their centers;
• infalling matter converts to energy, powering the galaxy
• 1 Msol/ yr = 5.7e39 W = 570 x LG = 1e37
• QSOs burn > 1000 Msol/ yr = 5.7e42 W
Particles will emit synchrotron radiation as they spiral along the magnetic
field lines; this radiation is decidedly nonstellar or nonthermal:
Motion along the magnetic field gives curvature radiation

IR Vis X
 The Central Engine of an Active Galaxy

working model of
active galactic nucleus:
black hole, surrounded by an
accretion disk. The strong
magnetic field lines around
the black hole channel
particles into jets

Eddington Limit
30e3* M* Lsol
 The Central Engine of an Active Galaxy

NGC 4261 in Virgo 100 pc

60 kpc
Summary of Key Ideas
 Types of Galaxies
 The Hubble classification system groups galaxies into
four major types: spiral, barred spiral, elliptical, and
irregular.
 The arms of spiral and barred spiral galaxies are sites of
active star formation.
 According to the theory of self-propagating star
formation, spiral arms of flocculent galaxies are caused
by the births and deaths of stars over extended regions
of a galaxy. Differential rotation of a galaxy stretches the
star-forming regions into elongated arches of stars and
nebulae that we see as spiral arms.
 Types of Galaxies
 According to the spiral density wave theory, spiral arms
of grand-design galaxies are caused by density waves.
The gravitational field of a spiral density wave
compresses the interstellar clouds that pass through it,
thereby triggering the formation of stars, including OB
associations, which highlight the arms.
 Elliptical galaxies contain much less interstellar gas and
dust than do spiral galaxies; little star formation occurs in
elliptical galaxies.
 Clusters and Superclusters
 Galaxies group into clusters rather than being randomly
scattered through the universe.
 A rich cluster contains at least a thousand galaxies; a
poor cluster may contain only a few dozen up to a
thousand galaxies. A regular cluster has a nearly
spherical shape with a central concentration of galaxies;
in an irregular cluster, the distribution of galaxies is
asymmetrical.
 Our Galaxy is a member of a poor, irregular cluster,
called the Local Group.
 Rich, regular clusters contain mostly elliptical and
lenticular galaxies; irregular clusters contain more spiral
and irregular galaxies. Giant elliptical galaxies are often
found near the centers of rich clusters.
 Clusters and Superclusters
 No cluster of galaxies has an observable mass large
enough to account for the observed motions of its
galaxies; a large amount of unobserved mass must be
present between the galaxies.
 Hot intergalactic gases emit X rays in rich clusters.
 When two galaxies collide, their stars initially pass each
other, but their interstellar gas and dust collide violently,
either stripping the gas and dust from the galaxies or
triggering prolific star formation. The gravitational effects
of a galactic collision can cast stars out of their galaxies
into intergalactic space.
 Galactic mergers occur; a large galaxy in a rich cluster
may grow steadily through galactic cannibalism,
sometimes producing a giant elliptical galaxy.
 Superclusters in Motion
 A simple linear relationship exists between the distance
from Earth to galaxies in other superclusters and the
redshifts of those galaxies (a measure of the speed at
which they are receding from us). This relationship is
the Hubble law: recessional velocity = Ho x distance,
where Ho is the Hubble constant.
 Astronomers use standard candles—Cepheid variables,
the brightest supergiants, globular clusters, H II regions,
supernovae in a galaxy, and the Tully-Fisher relation—
to calculate intergalactic distances. Because of
difficulties in measuring the distances to remote
galaxies, the value of the Hubble constant, Ho, is not
known with complete certainty.
 Key Ideas
 Quasars: A quasar looks like a star but has a huge
redshift. These redshifts show that quasars are several
hundred megaparsecs or more from the Earth, according
to the Hubble law.
 To be seen at such large distances, quasars must be very
luminous, typically about 1000 times brighter than an
ordinary galaxy.
 About 10% of all quasars are strong sources of radio
emission and are therefore called “radio-loud”; the
remaining 90% are “radio-quiet.”
 Some of the energy emitted by quasars is synchrotron
radiation produced by high-speed particles traveling in a
strong magnetic field.
 Key Ideas
 Seyfert Galaxies: Seyfert galaxies are spiral galaxies
with bright nuclei that are strong sources of radiation.
Seyfert galaxies seem to be nearby, low-luminosity,
radio-quiet quasars.
 Radio Galaxies: Radio galaxies are elliptical galaxies
located midway between the lobes of a double radio
source.
 Relativistic particles are ejected from the nucleus of a
radio galaxy along two oppositely directed jets.
 Key Ideas
 Blazars: Blazars are bright, starlike objects that can vary
rapidly in their luminosity. They are probably radio
galaxies or quasars seen end-on, with a jet of relativistic
particles aimed toward the Earth.
 Active Galaxies: Quasars, blazars, and Seyfert and
radio galaxies are examples of active galaxies. The
energy source at the center of an active galaxy is called
an active galactic nucleus.
 Rapid fluctuations in the brightness of active galaxies
indicate that the region that emits radiation is quite small.
 Key Ideas
 Black Holes and Active Galactic Nuclei: The
preponderance of evidence suggests that an active
galactic nucleus consists of a supermassive black hole
onto which matter accretes.
 As gases spiral in toward the supermassive black hole,
some of the gas may be redirected to become two jets of
high-speed particles that are aligned perpendicularly to
the accretion disk.
 An observer sees a radio galaxy when the accretion disk
is viewed nearly edge-on, so that its light is blocked by a
surrounding torus. At a steeper angle, the observer sees
a quasar. If one of the jets is aimed almost directly at the
Earth, a blazar is observed.
 Key Terms
barred spiral galaxy poor cluster (of galaxies)
cluster (of galaxies) regular cluster (of galaxies)
elliptical galaxy rich cluster (of galaxies)
galactic merger spiral density wave
gravitational lensing spiral galaxy
Hubble classification standard candle
Hubble constant starburst galaxy
Hubble flow supercluster (of galaxies)
Hubble law trailing-arm spiral galaxy
intergalactic gas Tully-Fisher relation
irregular cluster (of galaxies)
irregular galaxy
lenticular galaxy
Local Group
 WHAT DID YOU THINK?
 Are most of the stars in spiral galaxies
located in their spiral arms?
 No. The spiral arms contain only 5% more
stars than the regions between the arms.
 WHAT DID YOU THINK?
 Are galaxies isolated objects?
 No. Galaxies are grouped in clusters, and
clusters are grouped in superclusters.