Syllabus

1. Kinematics
2. Forces & Dynamics
3. Work, Energy & Power
4. Uniform Circular Motion
 Forces & Dynamics
1. Calculate the weight of a body using the expression W = mg
2. Identify the forces acting on an object and draw free-body diagrams
representing the forces acting
3. Determine the resultant force in different situations
4. State Newton’s first law of motion
5. Describe examples of Newton’s first law
6. State the condition for translational equilibrium
7. Solve problems involving translational equilibrium
8. State Newton’s second law of motion
9. Solve problems involving Newton’s second law
10. Define linear momentum and impulse
11. Determine the impulse due to a time-varying force by interpreting a
force-time graph
12. State the law of conservation of linear momentum
13. Solve problems involving momentum and impulse
14. State Newton’s third law of motion
15. Discuss examples of Newton’s third law
 Effects of Forces
A force is a push or a pull
that one object exerts on
another.
It is a vector and has both
magnitude and direction.

Force can cause a

motion on an object.
Changes of shape Forces may cause
maybe temporary or changes to the
permanent depending shape of objects
on the nature from
which the object is Force can produce a
made and the size of the tension, eg, a string
force applied. pulling an object.
 Different Types of Forces
• Gravitational forces
• Electrostatic forces
• Magnetic forces
• Normal reaction
• Friction
• Tension
• Compression
• Upthrust
• Lift
Name of force Description

The force between objects as a result of their masses.

The force between objects as a result of their electric

charges.

The force between magnets.

The force between two surfaces that acts at right angles

to the surfaces.

The force that opposes the relative motion of two

surfaces and acts along the surfaces.
Air resistance or drag can be thought of as friction or
more accurately as fluid friction.
Name of force Description

Gravitational force The force between objects as a result of their masses.

The force between objects as a result of their electric

Electrostatic force
charges.

Magnetic force The force between magnets.

The force between two surfaces that acts at right angles

Normal reaction
to the surfaces.

The force that opposes the relative motion of two

surfaces and acts along the surfaces.
Friction
Air resistance or drag can be thought of as friction or
more accurately as fluid friction.
Name of force Description

The force that the end of the string applies to

another object. A stretched string has equal and
opposite forces on its ends pulling it outwards.

The force that the ends of the rod applies to

another object. A squashed rod has equal and
opposite forces at its ends pushing inwards
(opposite of tension).

Upward force that acts on an object when it is

submerged in a fluid. The force that causes
some objects to float in water.

The force that is exerted on an object when a

fluid flows over it in an asymmetrical way. The
shape of the wing of an aircraft cause the
aerodynamic lift that enables the aircraft to fly.
Name of force Description

The force that the end of the string applies to

Tension another object. A stretched string has equal and
opposite forces on its ends pulling it outwards.

The force that the ends of the rod applies to

another object. A squashed rod has equal and
Compression
opposite forces at its ends pushing inwards
(opposite of tension).

Upward force that acts on an object when it is

Upthrust submerged in a fluid. The force that causes
some objects to float in water.

The force that is exerted on an object when a

fluid flows over it in an asymmetrical way. The
Lift
shape of the wing of an aircraft cause the
aerodynamic lift that enables the aircraft to fly.
 Measuring Forces
• Simplest experimental method for
measuring the size of a force is to use the
extension of a spring
• A spring increases in length when it is in
tension
• Extension of a spring = Difference between
the original length and the extended length
Hooke’s Law :
The amount by which a
material extends, x, is
proportional to the force
F applied, provided the
elastic limit is not
exceeded.
F = kx
K is a constant. It is
represented by the
gradient of the graph.
Forces as Vectors
Forces as Vectors
 Free-body Diagrams
• Only one object is chosen
• All the forces on that object are shown and
labelled
 Situation
• Imagine a simple situation of a book resting
on a table
• Construct free-body diagrams for either the
book or the table
Free-body Diagram for Book
Free-body Diagram for Table
Newton’s first law of motion

An object at rest will remain at rest and an

object in motion will continue in motion at
constant speed in a straight line unless a
resultant force acts on it to change its state.
balanced forces
When all forces are balanced, there is ‘no net force’
Newton’s first law of motion means that when no
net force acts on a body, the body will continue with
whatever motion it has
• If it is at rest, it will remain at rest
• If it is moving, it will continue moving at constant
speed in a straight line
zero
zero net
net at rest or moving
force
force at constant speed
effect of balanced forces on bodies
When the rock is not moving, it is at rest. The net
force acting on it is zero.
Reaction force exerted
upwards by table on
rock, R

weight of the
rock acts
downwards, W

balanced forces on a rock

a = zero
Resultant F = zero
R – W = zero
effect of balanced forces on bodies
effect of balanced forces on bodies

lift from
wings

air
resistance

engine
thrust
net force = 0N
weight

Constant height: weight of plane is balanced by lift from wings

Constant velocity: air resistance is balanced by thrust of engines
unbalanced forces
A force can
• Cause a stationery body to move and a moving body to stop
moving
• Change the speed of the moving body (accelerate or
decelerate the body)
• Cause a moving body to change its direction of motion
new
direction
of ball

drinking straw
original
ping
direction
pong
of ball
ball

blow
effect of balanced & unbalanced forces on bodies
effect of balanced & unbalanced forces on bodies
effect of balanced & unbalanced forces on bodies
 Equilibrium
• If the resultant force on an object is zero, it
is said to be in translational equilibrium [i.e.
Fnet = 0 N]
• From Newton’s 1st Law, these objects in the
following situations must be in equilibrium:
1.An object constantly at rest
2.An object moving with constant
(uniform) speed in a straight line [i.e.
constant velocity]
Newton’s 2nd law of motion
(learnt in IGCSE OR GCE O Levels)

The net force acting upon an object of constant mass is

equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of
the object in the direction of the force.

The direction of the force is the same as that of the

object’s acceleration

force
force acceleration
mass

F = ma
Newton’s 2nd law of motion
The net force acting upon an object is
proportional to the rate of change of
momentum

dp
F  If v is changing, F = madm
dt
If m is changing, F = v dt
d ( mv)

dt
dm dv
v m
dt dt
Example
A mass of 3 kg is accelerated in a straight line by a resultant
force of 12 N. Find its acceleration.

F = ma
a =
=
= 4.0 m s-2 (2 s.f.)
Example
A mass of 3 kg is accelerated in a straight line by a force of
12 N and the resultant acceleration is 1.5 m s-2. Find the
friction that is acting on it.

F = ma
Forward F – Friction = ma
Friction = Forward F – ma
= 12 – 3 (1.5)
= 7.5 N
Example
A mass of 3 kg is placed on a 30o slope. Given that the
maximum friction between the block and the slope is 8.0 N,
find its acceleration down the slope.

Into slope:
Normal reaction = Component into slope
Therefore, the block does not accelerate into the slope.
Down the slope:
Component down the slope = 30 sin 30o
Resultant F down the slope = ma
30 sin 30o – 8 = 3a
a =
= 2.3 m s-2 (2 s.f.)
Newton’s 3rd law of motion
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction,
and these forces act on mutually opposite bodies.
• Forces always occur in action
action
pairs
• Action and reaction act on
different bodies reaction
reaction

force of foot pushes force of ground pushes

the ground backwards the foot forward
Forces between roller-skaters
A roller-skater pushes off from a wall
 Mass and Weight
What is mass?
• Mass is a measure of the amount of matter
or substance in a body.
• The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)

The number and composition of atoms and molecules make up the mass of a body.
 Mass and Weight
What is weight?
• Weight is a force and has direction pointing
towards the centre of the earth
(downwards).
• Its SI unit is the Newton (N).
• This force is called gravitational force or
gravity.
What is gravitational field?
• The Earth’s gravity is experienced by any
object near it.
• The region surrounding the Earth where
gravity is experienced is called the
gravitational field.
• The force experienced is strongest on the
surface of the earth and gets weaker
further away.
Earth is surrounded by a
gravitational field. Field lines
are drawn to represent the
gravitation field.
 Mass and Weight
What is gravitational field strength?
• Gravitational field strength g is defined as the
gravitational force acting per unit mass on an
object.
• On Earth, the gravitational field strength is about
10 N kg-1
• A mass of 1 kg will weight 10 N on Earth.
• On Moon, the gravitational field strength is
about 1.6 N kg-1
• A mass of 1 kg will weight 1.6 N on Moon.
 Mass and Weight
How are mass and weight related?
• The weight or amount of gravitational
force acting on an object is dependent on
its mass.
• The weight W can be found by
W = mg
where
m = mass of object (in kg)
g = gravitational field strength in (N kg -1)
How are mass and weight related?
• Common weighing instruments such as
electronic balance, spring balance and
bathroom scales actually measure the
weight and not the mass of an object.
• Using the scale on Moon will give different
readings.

The fastest way to lose weight.

How is mass measured?
• Mass of an object does not depend on the
gravitational field strength.
• It can be measured using the beam
balance.
• The beam balance compares the
gravitational force acting on an object
with standard masses.
 Mass and Weight
Differences between mass and weight
Non-equilibrium Situation
Example
A train of mass 1.5 x 105 kg is travelling at 40 m s-1 when the
brakes are applied and it decelerates steadily. The train travels
a distance of 250 m before coming to a halt.
(a) Calculate the deceleration of the train.
(b) Find the average braking force.
(a) v2 = u2 + 2as
a =
=
= -3.2 m s-2 (2 s.f.)
Deceleration = 3.2 m s-2
(b) Average braking force, F = ma
=
1.5 x 105 (3.2)
=
4.8 x 105 N (2 s.f.)
Example
A large helium balloon is attached to the ground by two
fixing ropes. Each rope makes an angle of 50o with the
ground. There is a force F vertically upwards of 2.15 x 103 N.
The total mass of the balloon and its basket is 1.95 x 102 kg.

(a) State the magnitude of the resultant force when it is

attached to the ground.

(b) Calculate the tension in either of the fixing ropes.

(c) The fixing ropes are released and the balloon accelerates
upwards. Calculate the magnitude of this initial acceleration.

(d) The balloon reaches a terminal velocity 10 s after take-off.

The upward force F remains constant. Describe how the
magnitude of the air resistance on the balloon varies during
the first 10 s of its flight.
(a) Since it is attached to the ground and is at rest, according
to Newton’s 1st Law of Motion, its resultant F = 0 N

2.15 x 103 N

1.95 x 103 N
T T

50o 50o
(b) Since ∑Fy = 0,
2.15 x 103 – 1.95 x 103 – 2T sin 50o = 0
T =
= 130.541
= 1.3 x 102 N (2
s.f.)
(c) Fnet = ma
2.15 x 103 – 1.95 x 103 = 1.95 x 102 a
a =
= 1.026
= 1.03 m s-2 (3 s.f.)

(d) During the first 10 s of its flight, as the upward force

remains constant, the air resistance increases as its speed
increases. The air resistance increases until it is of the
same magnitude as the upward force. This occur at the
10th second and hence, the balloon reaches terminal
velocity as its resultant force is now zero.
Linear momentum
It is defined as the product of mass and velocity.

p = mv
Linear momentum is a vector and it acts in the direction of
the velocity.
(SI unit: kg m s-1 OR N s)

In any situation, particularly if it happens very quickly, the

change in momentum ∆p is called the impulse.
Impulse
It is the change in linear momentum of the system. It is
defined as the product of a force and the time during which it
acts.

Δp = pfinal - pinitial = m∆v = F∆t

It is represented by the area under the F-t graph
Therefore, Impulse= <F> x t

F/N

t/s
Newton’s 2nd law of motion
The net force acting upon an object is
proportional to the rate of change of
momentum

=
Example
A jet of water leaves a hose and hits a wall where its velocity
is brought to rest. If the hose cross-sectional area is 25 cm 2,
the velocity of the water is 50 m s-1 and the density of the
water is 1 000 kg m-3, what is the force acting on the wall?
In 1 s, a jet of water 50 m long hit the wall.
Volume of water hitting wall in 1 s, V = 0.0025 x 50
= 0.125 m3
Mass of water hitting wall in 1 s, m = ρV
= 1 000 (0.125)
= 125 kg
Momentum of water hitting wall in 1 s, p = mv
= 125 (50)
= 6 250 kg m s-1
When water is all brought to rest, ∆p = 6 250 kg m s-1
Therefore, F = (2 s.f.)
Example
The graph below shows the variation with time of the force
on a football of mass 500 g. Calculate the final velocity of the
ball.
p = Area under the graph
= 100 (0.01)
=1Ns
Total p = Total area under the graph
=5Ns
∆p = mv
∆v =
=
= 10 m s-1
∆v = vfinal – vinitial
vfinal = ∆v + vinitial
= 10 + 0
= 10 m s-1
Principle of Conservation of Momentum
In the absence of any external resultant force acting on a system of
objects, the total momentum of the system is conserved.

Total initial p = Total final p

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
*The above equation can be extended up to any number of
interacting particles so long as the system of particles is still
isolated. If this is the case, the momentum is still conserved.
Types of Collisions

(1) Elastic Collisions

u1 u2

Characteristics:
1. Total linear momentum is conserved
2. Total KE is conserved
3. Relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation
4. E.g. Collision between molecules
Types of Collisions
(2) Totally Inelastic Collisions
The two objects stick together after collision and move off
with a common velocity v
Characteristics:
1. Total linear momentum is conserved
2. Total KE is NOT conserved (a large amount of KE is lost as
heat and sound)
3. Relative speed of separation is zero
4. E.g. Railway trucks stick together during the collision
Types of Collisions
(3) Inelastic Collisions
In energy terms, this collision is between a perfectly elastic
collision and a totally inelastic collision. The two objects do
not stick together after collision but some energy is lost.
Characteristics:
1. Total linear momentum is conserved
2. Total KE is NOT conserved (some KE is lost as heat and
sound)
3. E.g. Railway trucks do not join together during a collision
but some energy is lost

http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/collision.htm
 A bullet being shot onto a block, and both are raised to a height h

EXAMPLE

Using conservation of linear momentum, and give that it is a perfectly inelastic collision:
mv + 0 = (m + M)vt
Using principle of conservation of energy,
Gain in PE = loss in KE
(m + M)gh = ½ (m+ M)vt2
3 Special Types of Collisions (elastic only)

m M

u1 u2 = 0
u1 - u 2 = v 1 – v 2  v 2 = u 1 + v 1
mu1 = mv1 + Mv2
 mu1 = mv1 + M(u1 + v1)
m M
v1 = (u1)
mM
Since this equation is formed,

m M
v1 = (u1)
mM
1. if m= M, v1 = 0 and v2 = u1
2. if m >> M, v1 = u1
3. if M >> m, v1 = -u1 and v2 = u2 = 0