Digital transmissions

Digital To Digital Conversion

• Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital
information by a digital signal. When binary 1s and 0s
generated by the computer are translated into a sequence
of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire, this
process is known as digital-to-digital encoding.

• Conversation Techniques
• Line Coding
• Block Coding
• Scrambling
Line Coding
• The process of converting the digital data into digital signal is called as
line coding which helps the receiver to get the original bits.
• The data that is in the form of text, numbers, audio, or video is
represented internally as series of 1s and 0s.
• Line coding therefore transforms a set of bits into a digital signal.
• The sender side encrypts digital data into digital signals, while the
receiving side decodes the digital signal to regenerate the digital data.
There are basically three different types of line coding technique:
• Unipolar
• Polar
• Bipolar
1) Unipolar
• Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link
such as wire or cable.
• In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage
level represents 1.
• The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
• This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only one
polarity.
• In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
• In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero
value.
• In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as
a zero voltage.
• Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.
• Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less desirable:
• DC Component: When we find out the average amplitude of a unipolar signal, then
the value would always be non-zero because of which it creates DC component. And
the signal having DC component is not able to travel through the medium which
cannot handle DC component.
• Synchronization: When a signal is constant, the receiver cannot distinguish between
the start and finish of each bit. For that the receiver has to rely on a timer to track the
starting of each bit.
2) Polar
• Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive,
and another is negative.
• By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC
component problem of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.
NRZ
• NRZ stands for Non-return zero.
• In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented
either positive or negative.
• The two most common methods used in NRZ are:
• NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on
the type of the bit that it represents. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their
voltages will be positive and negative respectively. Therefore,
we can say that the level of the signal is dependent on the
state of the bit.
• NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that
represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I encoding scheme, a transition
occurs between the positive and negative voltage that
represents 1 bit. In this scheme, 0 bit represents no change
and 1 bit represents a change in voltage level.
RZ
• RZ stands for Return to zero.
• There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve
synchronization. However, to change with every bit, we
need to have three values: positive, negative and zero.
• RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values,
positive voltage represents 1, the negative voltage
represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
• In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal
returns to zero.
• In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0
bit is represented by negative-to-zero.
Disadvantage of RZ:
It performs two signal
changes to encode one bit
that acquires more
bandwidth.
Biphase
• Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the
bit interval but does not return to zero.
Manchester
• It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to
zero for synchronization.
• In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1,
and positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
• Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it
has two levels of amplitude.
Differential Manchester
• It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but
the presence or absence of the transition at the beginning of the interval
determines the bit. A transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary
1.
• In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one
signal change represent 1.
• Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels:
positive, negative, and zero.
• In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0,
and binary 1 is represented by alternating positive and
negative voltages.
• If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the
second 1 bit is represented by negative voltage, third 1 bit is
represented by the positive amplitude and so on. This
alternation can also occur even when the 1bits are not
consecutive.
AMI

• AMI stands for alternate mark inversion where mark work

comes from telegraphy which means 1. So, it can be redefined
as alternate 1 inversion.
• In Bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 bit is represented by zero
level and 1 bit is represented by alternating positive and
negative voltages.
Advantage:
• DC component is zero.
• Sequence of 1s bits are synchronized.
Disadvantage:
• This encoding scheme does not ensure the synchronization of
a long string of 0s bits.
B8ZS
• B8ZS stands for Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution.
• This technique is adopted in North America to provide
synchronization of a long sequence of 0s bits.
• In most of the cases, the functionality of B8ZS is similar to the
bipolar AMI, but the only difference is that it provides the
synchronization when a long sequence of 0s bits occur.
• B8ZS ensures synchronization of a long string of 0s by providing
force artificial signal changes called violations, within 0 string
pattern.
• When eight 0 occurs, then B8ZS implements some changes in 0s
string pattern based on the polarity of the previous 1 bit.
• If the polarity of the previous 1 bit is positive, the eight 0s will be
encoded as zero, zero, zero, positive, negative, zero, negative,
positive.
• If the polarity of previous 1 bit is negative, then the
eight 0s will be encoded as zero, zero, zero, negative,
positive, zero, positive, negative.
HDB3
• HDB3 stands for High-Density Bipolar 3.
• HDB3 technique was first adopted in Europe and Japan.
• HDB3 technique is designed to provide the synchronization of a
long sequence of 0s bits.
• In the HDB3 technique, the pattern of violation is based on the
polarity of the previous bit.
• When four 0s occur, HDB3 looks at the number of 1s bits occurred
since the last substitution.
• If the number of 1s bits is odd, then the violation is made on the
fourth consecutive of 0. If the polarity of the previous bit is
positive, then the violation is positive. If the polarity of the
previous bit is negative, then the violation is negative.
 • If the number of 1s bits is
even, then the violation is
made on the place of the
first and fourth consecutive
0s.

• If the polarity of the

previous bit is positive,
then violations are
negative, and if the
polarity of the previous
bit is negative, then
violations are positive.
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
• When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an
analog-to-digital conversion.
• Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog
signal, we need to digitalize the analog signal which is
less prone to noise. It requires a reduction in the
number of values in an analog message so that they
can be represented in the digital stream.
• In analog-to-digital conversion, the information
contained in a continuous wave form is converted in
digital pulses.
Techniques of Analog-to-Digital Conversion
A) PULSE CODE MODULATION
The most common technique to change an analog signal
to digital data is called pulse code modulation (PCM). A PCM
encoder has the following three processes:
1.Sampling
2.Quantization
3.Encoding
Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a
process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal
at discrete instants, converting the continuous signal into a
discrete signal.
(i) Ideal Sampling: In ideal Sampling
also known as Instantaneous
sampling pulses from the analog
signal are sampled. This is an ideal
sampling method and cannot be
easily implemented.
(ii) Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling
is a practical method of sampling in
which pulse have finite width equal
to T. The result is a sequence of
samples that retain the shape of the
analog signal.
(iii) Flat top sampling: In comparison to
natural sampling flat top sampling
can be easily obtained. In this
sampling technique, the top of the
samples remains constant by using
a circuit. This is the most common
sampling method used.
Quantization
The result of sampling is a series of pulses
with amplitude values between the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
signal. The set of amplitudes can be infinite
with non-integral values between two limits.
The following are the steps in Quantization:

1.We assume that the signal has amplitudes between

Vmax and Vmin
2. We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d=
(Vmax- Vmin)/ L
3. The value at the top of each sample in the graph
shows the actual amplitude.
4. The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM)
value is calculated using the formula amplitude/d.
5. After this we calculate the quantized value which the
process selects from the middle of each zone.
6. The Quantized error is given by the difference
between quantized value and normalised PAM value.
7. The Quantization code for each sample based on
quantization levels at the left of the graph.
Encoding
• The digitization of the analog signal is done by the
encoder. After each sample is quantized and the
number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can
be changed to an n bit code. Encoding also minimizes
the bandwidth used. Note that the number of bits for
each sample is determined from the number of
quantization levels. If the number of quantization levels
is L, the number of bits is n bit = log 2 L.
B) DELTA MODULATION
• Since PCM is a very complex technique, other techniques have been
developed to reduce the complexity of PCM.
• The simplest is delta Modulation.
• Delta Modulation finds the change from the previous value.
• Modulator – The modulator is used at the sender site to create a
stream of bits from an analog signal.
• The process records a small positive change called delta. If the delta
is positive, the process records a 1 else the process records a 0.
• The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase. The
input signal is then compared with this gradually made staircase
signal.
• We have the following rules for output:
1.If the input analog signal is higher than the last value of the staircase
signal, increase delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 1.
2.If the input analog signal is lower than the last value of the staircase
signal, decrease delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 0.
• Demodulator – The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the
staircase maker and the delay unit, creates the analog signal. The
created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-pass filter
for smoothing.
C) ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION
• The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the step size of the
modulator assume a time-varying form. A larger step-size is needed where the message has a steep slope of
modulating signal and a smaller step-size is needed where the message has a small slope. The size is
adapted according to the level of the input signal. This method is known as adaptive delta modulation
(ADM).
Applications
• Digital Signal Processing: In this process, the systems for
processing, storing, or transporting almost any analogue signal into
digital format require ADCs to perform well. Let’s an example, in TV
tuner cards this is use as fast video analog-to-digital converters.
• Recording Music System: The modern digital audio workstation-
based sound recording and music reproduction technologies both
are basically rely heavily on analog-to-digital converters.
• Scientific Instruments or Projects: The digital imaging systems
are normally use analog-to-digital converters for digitizing the
instruments and projects pixels.
Data Transmission
• The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in
either parallel or serial mode.
Parallel Transmission
• In parallel transmission, binary data is grouped into bits. The number of
groups corresponds to the number of threads between the sender and
receiver, and the groups are transmitted simultaneously.
• This method allows for groups of bits
(bytes) to be transmitted faster than serial
transmission. However, because separate
lines are required for each bit, building
infrastructure this way would be costly.
• That’s why we mostly see parallel
transmission within devices, like computer
processors, for example. The
communication between an API like RDD
and the Spark codebase is another
example of parallel transmission.
Serial Data Transmission
• In serial data transmission, each bit is sent one after the other in sequence. This is the type of data
transmission method devices use to communicate over a network.
• Since the sending or receiving devices will use parallel transmission internally, converters (serial to
parallel and parallel to serial) are used at the interface point between the device and the line.
• Parallel transmission always happens in synchronicity with the system clock. Serial transmission,
though, can be subdivided into three further groups based on the synchronization of the sending
and receiving device.
Asynchronous
• This method sends bytes with an additional “start” and “stop” bit at the beginning and
end. That means the receiving device knows the length of a byte without synchronizing
with the transmitter.
• By counting the start and stop bits, the receiver can resynchronize the data stream at the
byte level each time a new signal is received. This method is often used for low-speed
transmissions, such as the input data from your keyboard or sporadic data from business
microservices.
Synchronous
• In synchronous transmissions, data is sent in frames. These are long continuous strings of
uninterrupted binary data. The receiving device counts the bits of binary data, using the
synchronicity between devices (defined in the data layer) to count the length of a byte.
• Since data is sent as a constant stream, synchronous transmission allows for high transfer
speeds. This kind of transmission is used for high-speed connections between modern
computer networks.
Isochronous
• When an image or audio signal needs to be broadcast at
a specific frame rate, uninterrupted, then synchronous
and asynchronous transmission both fall short. The
entire bit stream needs to be synchronized and sent at
a constant rate with no gaps between frames.
• This is where Isochronous transmission is used. You
might see this in a digital TV broadcast signal, or a live
streaming service.