Today: Cameras
Overview
• The pinhole projection model
• Qualitative properties
• Perspective projection matrix
• Cameras with lenses
• Depth of focus
• Field of view
• Lens aberrations
• Digital cameras
• Types of sensors
• Color
Let’s design a camera
Idea 1: put a piece of film in front of an object
Do we get a reasonable image?
Slide by Steve Seitz
Pinhole camera
Add a barrier to block off most of the rays
• This reduces blurring
• The opening is known as the aperture
Slide by Steve Seitz
Pinhole camera model
Pinhole model:
• Captures pencil of rays – all rays through a single point
• The point is called Center of Projection (focal point)
• The image is formed on the Image Plane
Slide by Steve Seitz
Dimensionality Reduction Machine (3D to 2D)
3D world 2D image
Point of observation
What have we lost?
• Angles
• Distances (lengths)
Slide by A. Efros
Figures © Stephen E. Palmer, 2002
Projection properties
• Many-to-one: any points along same visual
ray map to same point in image
• Points → points
• But projection of points on focal plane is undefined
• Lines → lines (collinearity is preserved)
• But line through focal point (visual ray) projects to a point
• Planes → planes (or half-planes)
• But plane through focal point projects to line
Vanishing points
• Each direction in space has its own vanishing point
• All lines going in that direction converge at that point
• Exception: directions parallel to the image plane
• All directions in the same plane have vanishing points
on the same line
Vanishing points
• Each direction in space has its own vanishing point
• All lines going in that direction converge at that point
• Exception: directions parallel to the image plane
• All directions in the same plane have vanishing points
on the same line
• How do we construct the vanishing point/line?
One-point perspective
Masaccio, Trinity, Santa
Maria Novella,
Florence, 1425-28
One of the first
consistent uses of
perspective in
Western art
Perspective distortion
• Problem for architectural photography:
converging verticals
Source: F. Durand
Perspective distortion
• Problem for architectural photography:
converging verticals
Tilting the camera Keeping the camera level, Shifting the lens
upwards results in with an ordinary lens, upwards results in a
converging verticals captures only the bottom picture of the entire
portion of the building subject
• Solution: view camera (lens shifted w.r.t. film)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_correction_lens Source: F. Durand
Perspective distortion
• Problem for architectural photography:
converging verticals
• Result:
Source: F. Durand
Perspective distortion
• However, converging verticals work quite well
for horror movies…
Perspective distortion
• What does a sphere project to?
Image source: F. Durand
Perspective distortion
• What does a sphere project to?
Perspective distortion
• The exterior columns appear bigger
• The distortion is not due to lens flaws
• Problem pointed out by Da Vinci
Slide by F. Durand
Perspective distortion: People
Modeling projection
y
f
z
The coordinate system
• The optical center (O) is at the origin
• The image plane is parallel to xy-plane (perpendicular to z axis)
Source: J. Ponce, S. Seitz
Modeling projection
y
f
z
Projection equations
• Compute intersection with image plane of ray from P = (x,y,z) to O
• Derived using similar triangles
x y
( x, y , z ) ( f , f , f )
z z
• We get the projection by throwing out the last coordinate:
x y
( x, y , z ) ( f , f )
z z Source: J. Ponce, S. Seitz
Homogeneous coordinates
x y
( x, y , z ) ( f , f )
z z
Is this a linear transformation?
• no—division by z is nonlinear
Trick: add one more coordinate:
homogeneous image homogeneous scene
coordinates coordinates
Converting from homogeneous coordinates
Slide by Steve Seitz
Perspective Projection Matrix
Projection is a matrix multiplication using homogeneous
coordinates:
x
1 0 0 0 x
0 1 0 y x y
0 y ( f , f )
z z z
0 0 1 / f 0 z / f divide by the third
1 coordinate
Perspective Projection Matrix
Projection is a matrix multiplication using homogeneous
coordinates:
x
1 0 0 0 x
0 1 0 y x y
0 y ( f , f )
z z z
0 0 1 / f 0 z / f divide by the third
1 coordinate
In practice: lots of coordinate transformations…
Camera to World to 3D
2D Perspective
pixel coord.
point = trans. matrix
projection matrix camera coord.
trans. matrix
point
(3x1) (3x4) (4x1)
(3x3) (4x4)
Orthographic Projection
Special case of perspective projection
• Distance from center of projection to image plane is infinite
Image World
• Also called “parallel projection”
• What’s the projection matrix?
Slide by Steve Seitz
Building a real camera
Camera Obscura
• Basic principle known to
Mozi (470-390 BCE),
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
• Drawing aid for artists:
described by Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519)
Gemma Frisius, 1558
Source: A. Efros
Abelardo Morell
From Grand Images Through a Tiny Opening, Photo
District News, February 2005
Camera Obscura Image of Manhattan View
Looking South in Large Room, 1996
http://www.abelardomorell.net/camera_obscura1.html
Home-made pinhole camera
Why so
blurry?
Slide by A. Efros http://www.debevec.org/Pinhole/
Shrinking the aperture
Why not make the aperture as small as possible?
• Less light gets through
• Diffraction effects…
Slide by Steve Seitz
Shrinking the aperture
Adding a lens
A lens focuses light onto the film
• Rays passing through the center are not deviated
Slide by Steve Seitz
Adding a lens
focal point
A lens focuses light onto the film
• Rays passing through the center are not deviated
• All parallel rays converge to one point on a plane located at
the focal length f
Slide by Steve Seitz
Adding a lens
“circle of
confusion”
A lens focuses light onto the film
• There is a specific distance at which objects are “in focus”
– other points project to a “circle of confusion” in the image
Slide by Steve Seitz
Thin lens formula
D’ D
f
Frédo Durand’s slide
Thin lens formula
Similar triangles everywhere!
D’ D
f
Frédo Durand’s slide
Thin lens formula
Similar triangles everywhere! y’/y = D’/D
D’ D
f
y
y’
Frédo Durand’s slide
Thin lens formula
Similar triangles everywhere! y’/y = D’/D
y’/y = (D’-f)/f
D’ D
f
y
y’
Frédo Durand’s slide
Thin lens formula
1 +1 =1 Any point satisfying the thin
lens equation is in focus.
D’ D f
D’ D
f
Frédo Durand’s slide
Depth of Field
http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/depth-of-field.htm
Slide by A. Efros
How can we control the depth of field?
Changing the aperture size affects depth of field
• A smaller aperture increases the range in which the object is
approximately in focus
• But small aperture reduces amount of light – need to
increase exposure
Slide by A. Efros
Varying the aperture
Large aperture = small DOF Small aperture = large DOF
Slide by A. Efros
Nice Depth of Field effect
Source: F. Durand
Manipulating the plane of focus
In this image, the plane of focus is almost at a
right angle to the image plane
Source: F. Durand
Tilt-shift lenses
• Tilting the lens with respect to the image plane allows
to choose an arbitrary plane of focus
shift
tilt
plane of focus lens plane image plane
• Standard setup: plane of focus is parallel to image
plane and lens plane
Tilt-shift lenses
• Tilting the lens with respect to the image plane allows
to choose an arbitrary plane of focus
shift
tilt
tilted image plane
plane of focus
lens plane
• Scheimpflug principle: plane of focus
passes through the line of intersection
between the lens plane and the image plane
“Fake miniatures”
Olivo Barbieri: http://www.metropolismag.com/cda/story.php?artid=1760
Field of View
Slide by A. Efros
Field of View
Slide by A. Efros
Field of View
f
f
FOV depends on focal length and size of the camera retina
Smaller FOV = larger Focal Length Slide by A. Efros
Field of View / Focal Length
Large FOV, small f
Camera close to car
Small FOV, large f
Camera far from the car
Sources: A. Efros, F. Durand
Same effect for faces
wide-angle standard telephoto
Source: F. Durand
Approximating an affine camera
Source: Hartley & Zisserman
The dolly zoom
• Continuously adjusting the focal length while
the camera moves away from (or towards)
the subject
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_zoom
The dolly zoom
• Continuously adjusting the focal length while
the camera moves away from (or towards)
the subject
• “The Vertigo shot”
Examples of dolly zoom from movies (YouTube)
Real lenses
Lens Flaws: Chromatic Aberration
Lens has different refractive indices for different
wavelengths: causes color fringing
Near Lens Center Near Lens Outer Edge
Lens flaws: Spherical aberration
Spherical lenses don’t focus light perfectly
Rays farther from the optical axis focus closer
Lens flaws: Vignetting
Radial Distortion
• Caused by imperfect lenses
• Deviations are most noticeable near the edge of the lens
No distortion Pin cushion Barrel
Digital camera
A digital camera replaces film with a sensor array
• Each cell in the array is light-sensitive diode that converts photons to electrons
• Two common types
– Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
– Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
• http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/digital-camera.htm
Slide by Steve Seitz
CCD vs. CMOS
CCD: transports the charge across the chip and reads it at one corner of the array.
An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) then turns each pixel's value into a digital
value by measuring the amount of charge at each photosite and converting that
measurement to binary form
CMOS: uses several transistors at each pixel to amplify and move the charge using
more traditional wires. The CMOS signal is digital, so it needs no ADC.
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/digital-camera.htm
http://www.dalsa.com/shared/content/pdfs/CCD_vs_CMOS_Litwiller_2005.pdf
Color sensing in camera: Color filter array
Bayer grid
Estimate missing
components from
neighboring values
(demosaicing)
Why more green?
Human Luminance Sensitivity Function
Source: Steve Seitz
Assignment 1: Demosaicing
Problem with demosaicing: color moire
Slide by F. Durand
The cause of color moire
detector
Fine black and white detail in image
misinterpreted as color information
Slide by F. Durand
Color sensing in camera: Prism
• Requires three chips and precise alignment
• More expensive
CCD(R)
CCD(G)
CCD(B)
Color sensing in camera: Foveon X3
• CMOS sensor
• Takes advantage of the fact that red, blue and green
light penetrate silicon to different depths
http://www.foveon.com/article.php?a=67 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor
better image quality
Source: M. Pollefeys
Digital camera artifacts
Noise
– low light is where you most notice noise
– light sensitivity (ISO) / noise tradeoff
– stuck pixels
In-camera processing
– oversharpening can produce halos
Compression
– JPEG artifacts, blocking
Blooming
– charge overflowing into neighboring pixels
Color artifacts
– purple fringing from microlenses,
– white balance
Slide by Steve Seitz
Historic milestones
• Pinhole model: Mozi (470-390 BCE),
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
• Principles of optics (including lenses):
Alhacen (965-1039 CE) Alhacen’s notes
• Camera obscura: Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519), Johann Zahn (1631-1707)
• First photo: Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1822)
• Daguerréotypes (1839)
• Photographic film (Eastman, 1889)
• Cinema (Lumière Brothers, 1895) Niepce, “La Table Servie,” 1822
• Color Photography (Lumière Brothers, 1908)
• Television (Baird, Farnsworth, Zworykin, 1920s)
• First consumer camera with CCD:
Sony Mavica (1981)
• First fully digital camera: Kodak DCS100 (1990)
CCD chip
Early color photography
Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky (1863-1944)
Photographs of the Russian empire
(1909-1916)
Lantern
projector
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Mikhailovich_Prokudin-Gorskii
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/empire/
First digitally scanned photograph
• 1957, 176x176 pixels
http://listverse.com/history/top-10-incredible-early-firsts-in-photography/
