Debark University

College of Agriculture and Environmental

Sciences
Department of NaRM

The course: Biodiversity Conservation and

Mang.t
BY: Belgie A.

Debark Ethiopia
June,2023
  Chapter 1.WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?

 Biodiversity include plants, animals and micro-organisms and

humans
 Biodiversity response variable affected by changes
 Climate
 Resource availability
 Disturbance
  Conted…
 Factor potential to influence
 Rate
 Magnitude
 Direction of ecosystem processes
 Biodiversity plant, animals and micro-organisms
 Genetic variability expressed and populations
 Habitats, ecosystems and natural areas
 Mosaic constitutes the landscape richness natural environment
 Biodiversity total diversity and Variability of living organisms
 History of Biodiversity

 Diversity’ is not new, rather has a long history

 Biological diversity’ came into use in scientific
literature only in the 1980s
 First planning conference ‘National Forum on Biodiversity’,
Washington D. C., on Sept. 1986
 Convention on Biological Diversity in June 1992
 Genetic diversity considered and conservation biodiversity
accepted common concern cause human welfare
  Global Biodiversity Gradient

 Biodiversity is not distributed evenly across the planet

 Uneven distribution, certain ecosystems and regions contain
far more species than others
 Most species rich ecosystems planet
 Tropical rain forests
 Coral reefs
 Deep sea
 Large tropical lakes
  Conted…
 Most groups terrestrial plants and animals, species diversity is lowest near
the poles

 Increases tropics, reaching its peak in tropical rain forests

 Evolution of Biodiversity

 Biodiversity product biological and geophysical events occurred

history life on Earth

Life on Earth is 3.7 - 3.85x109 years old

Evolutionary history shapes current physical and biological

environment

Current diversity of species is a product of the processes of extinction

and speciation
 Extinction

 Extinction important part process of evolution of biodiversity

 does not occur at a constant pace
 It is the complete disappearance of a species from Earth
 Extinction final and irreversible event of species loss
 In contrast, extirpation is the local or regional disappearance
species from only a part of its range
  Major Five Extinction events

 Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction Event (75% of all species

including dinosaurs) about 75 million years ago

 Triassic–Jurassic Extinction Event (60% of all species

large Amphibians) about 205 million years ago

 Permian–Triassic Extinction Event (96% Aquatic Species

70% land species) 251 million years ago

  Conted…

 Late Devonian Extinction Event (70% all

species) 360 million years ago

 Ordovician–Silurian Extinction Event (80%

all species) 450 million years ago

  Humans endanger existence species three principal ways

 Direct exploitation, hunting

 Biological introduction alien species new ecosystems
 Human-driven extinction destruction and fragmentation
habitat
 E . g expansion of Agriculture land
 Building of towns and cities
 Transport infrastructure
 Divisions/ types of biodiversity

Biodiversity, three hierarchical levels

 Genetic
 Species and Community
 Ecosystem levels
 Genetic diversity
 Genetic diversity variation nucleotides

Genes
Chromosomes
Whole genomes of organisms
  Conted…
 Genetic diversity sum total genetic information, contained
genes of
 Individuals of plants
 Animals
 Microorganisms inhabit earth
 Maintain reproductive vitality
 Resistance to disease and ability adapt changing conditions
 Genetic diversity measured different levels

 population, species, community, and biome

 Amount diversity genetic level important

 Represents raw material evolution and adaptation

 More genetic diversity species or population ability

individuals adapt changes environment
 Less genetic diversity uniformity, unlikely
individual population adapt changing conditions
 Species diversity
 A group organisms genetically similar
 Interbreed and produce fertile offspring species
 Species diversity total number of species within separate
geographical boundaries
 Species distinct diversity playing a specific role ecosystem
 Number and kind species
 The different sample areas showing species
 Community-level diversity
 Species occupy particular locality and interactions between
them
 Collective response species different environmental
conditions
 Biological communities
 Deserts
 Grasslands
 Wetlands
 Forest
  Diversity level community and ecosystem exists along 3
levels
 Within-community diversity (alpha diversity)
 Between-communities diversity (beta diversity)
 Diversity habitats total landscape geographical area
(gamma diversity)
 Alpha Diversity diversity particular area or ecosystem

usually expressed number of species (i.e., species richness)

in ecosystem
  Conted…
 Beta diversity: a comparison of diversity between ecosystems,
usually measured amount species change b/n ecosystems
 Gamma diversity: a measure overall diversity within a large
region. Geographic scale species diversity
  BIODIVERSTY PRINCIPLES

1. Go native - Native areas (wetlands, aquatic areas, riparian

areas, forests/woodlands, and grasslands) provide important

contribution biodiversity on land

2. Semi-natural is valuable -Semi-natural areas (e.g.,

shelterbelts, hedgerows, pastures and hay lands, buffers, road

margins) contribute conservation biodiversity

3. Location - location, pattern, and seasonal availability habitat

influences type and amount biodiversity present

  Conted…
4.Connection - Connecting native and semi-natural areas land and with neigh

bouring landscapes important biodiversity

5. Achieving structural diversity- variation physical structure both native

vegetation and crops—on land provides important contribution biodiversity

6. Healthy ecosystems - health native and semi-natural areas, all other

farmland, and soil and water influences type and amount biodiversity present

7. Variety - number and mix species present, including crops and livestock,

influences type and amount biodiversity present

8. Aliens - Invasive alien species are generally detrimental conservation

biodiversity
  WHAT IS AGROBIODIVERSITY?

 Agro biodiversity result natural selection processes

 Creative developments Farmers

Herders
Fishers over times
 Agro biodiversity vital sub-set of biodiversity
 Agro biodiversity or genetic resources for food and
agriculture

 Harvested crop varieties

 Livestock breeds
 Fish species
 Forest
 Rangeland
 Wild animals hunted food
 Aquatic ecosystems
 Conted…

Non-harvested species Non-harvested species wider

production ecosystems environment

 Agricultural
 Soil micro-biota
 Pastoral
 Pollinators  Forest
 Insects such as bees  Aquatic ecosystems

 Butterflies
 Earthworms
 Greenflies
Conted…
 Conted…

 Agro biodiversity result interaction between

 Environment
 Genetic resources
 Management systems
 Practices culturally diverse peoples
 Land and water resources
 Distinctive features agro biodiversity
 Agro biodiversity managed male and female farmers
 Many components agro biodiversity would not survive
without human interference
 Local knowledge and culture integral parts agro biodiversity
management
 Many economically important agricultural ‘alien’ crop or
livestock
 Conted…

 Human management
 Conservation agro biodiversity production systems
 sustainable use – preservation establishing protected areas
less relevant
 Agricultural systems, crop diversity ex situ in gene banks or
breeders’ materials rather than on-farm
 ROLE OF AGROBIODIVERSITY
 Increase productivity
 Food security
 Economic returns
 Reduce pressure agriculture fragile areas
 Forests and endangered species
 Make farming systems
 Stable, healthy, and sustainable
 Sound pest & disease management
 Conted…

 Conserve soil & increase natural soil fertility & health

 Contribute sustainable intensification
 Diversify products & income opportunities
 Reduce or spread risks individuals & nations
 Help maximize effective use resources & environment
 Reduce dependency on external inputs
 Improve human nutrition, provide sources medicines, vitamins
 Conserve ecosystem structure & stability species diversity
 Chapter 2: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS
IMPORTANCE

 Biological resources project site and surrounding

environments
 Biological resources grouped affect agriculture, scientific
inputs, provide natural goods and services
 Living organisms, cells, genes, and essential raw materials
advancement biotechnology, human health, research and
development life sciences
  Value of biological resources
Direct and Indirect use
  Conted…
 Consumptive use value: Consumed directly, without passing
market
 Value nature’s products -

Fire wood
Fodder
Game meat
 Productive use value: Market or trading

 Value products commercially harvested:

Timber
Fish
Game meat sold market, medicinal plants
  Conted…

 Non-consumptive use value: future potential biodiversity

Tourism
Scientific research
Ecological balance
Indirect use
 Ecological services
 Benefits of biodiversity
  Economic benefits

 Food value :providing food human population

 Directly or indirectly helpful
 Scientific advancement many new taxa
 Commercial value
 Timber major component material providing shelter man
 Natural fibre cotton and silk clothing human
  Conted…
 Medicinal value :Medicines, drugs and pharmaceuticals
 Plant genetic resources basic drugs
 Plant resources vary actinomycetes and fungi large trees
 Traditional knowledge indigenous people edge over scientific
knowledge
 Benefit biodiversity assess fraction biodiversity potential
medicine and agriculture
  Conted…

 Aesthetic value :Man involved natural beauty and nature

inspired resulting development moral and ethical values
 plants and animals independent economic and commercial
value
 Wonderful plants and animals planet not only reflect aesthetic
value but make think maker
 Ecological benefits/services: Biodiversity supplies

buffering capacity and stability life planet by maintaining

interactive dynamics ecosystems
  Microbial genetic resources
 Microbes diverse group of organisms Earth
 Largest number species
 Important new organisms
 Meta barcoding, a high-throughput variation barcoding meta
genomic
 Food security and nutrition improved healthy soils
 Dependent on soil microorganisms
 Conted…
 Barcoding tool conservation species
 Metabarcoding conservation ecosystem functions
Plant genetic resources
 Molecular extensively crop breeding
 Inform genetic diversity identify valuable exotic germ plasm
 Crop progenitor and origins domestication or gene flow and
introgression
 Forest genetic resources

 Forest tree species most genetically variable organisms earth

 Potential value diversity between and within forest plant
species
 Long generation times trees, exposure inbreeding depression
and narrow regional adaptation
 Diverse environmental stresses

 Hybridization events create reversible heritable epigenetic

marks
 Subsequent generations molecular ‘memory’
  Conted…

 Epigenetic changes ability plants colonize or persist variable

environments
 Forest Biodiversity Indicators
 Forest inventory variables supporting material and deadwood
 Forest composition, taxa represented birds, and fungi
dominated
 Valuable flora and fauna covered
 Generally, functional indicator

E.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients availabilities

  Forest Ecosystem Functioning
 Practical functional forest biodiversity indicators
 Stand scale
 Stand age
 Thinning frequency
 Wet microhabitats
 Elevation
 Available phosphorus
 Conted…
 Uprooting, wood-decaying bracket fungi and ungulate looking
were used as practical indicators
  Field crops
 Main field crops:

Rice
Soybeans
Peanuts
 A variety vegetable crops grown:

Red onion
Chili
Tomatoes
Snake bean/long bean
Maize
Cassava
Spinach, lettuce, and cucumber
  Conted…

 First rice crops often failed or achieved very low production

 Second crops were better, possibly leaching effect rice paddy
water
 Salinity levels declined, vegetative growth improved
 Crops grown coastal soils peanuts affected seawater
inundation
 Crops grown on better soils further inland such as soybeans
  Conted…
 Variable crop importance monitoring growth, yields and
nutrient levels
 Establish new production systems such as different
crops/rotations
 Site selection
 Cropping highly saline areas waste resources
 Important grow crops bore impacts minimal
 Soil fertility relatively unaffected
  Conted…

 Crop failures low lying areas

 Marine water during high tide events

What is Horticulture?
 Horticulture science and art development, sustainable
production, marketing
 Use high-value, intensively cultivated food and ornamental
plants
  Conted…
 Horticultural crops are diverse, including:
 Annual and perennial species
 Fruits and vegetables
 Decorative indoor plants
 Landscape plants
 Horticulture quality life
 beauty
 Sustainability
 Rehabilitation environment and human condition
Feed the future innovation lab for horticulture
Colorful Flower
Colorful Flower Garden
  Why is horticulture important?
 Horticulture enriches diets:
 Specifically, growing fruits and vegetables
 Provides critical nutrients balanced diet
 Horticulture increases incomes:
 Farmers growing high-value crops: fruits, vegetables, flowers
or herbs, consistently growing commodities
 Agricultural and economic diversification
 Improving livelihoods increasing farmer profits and
diversifying nutrient-rich diets
 Identified these challenges for horticulture development

 Gender equity: Vegetables, fruits and cut flowers grown and

marketed women
 Women less access markets, land, inputs and education
 Technological innovation: Complexity horticulture,
innovative “leapfrog” technologies
 Reduce constraints and input costs limit ability smallholder
farmers to achieve maximum profitability
  Conted…

 Access to information and research capacity

 Commercial success horticulture locally adapted research
tools:
Improved cultivars
Management tools
Market knowledge
Effective postharvest practices
  Essential oil-bearing plants resources

 Conservation efforts protect and preserve species essential

and carrier oil-bearing plants
 Ecosystem biological community of interacting organisms
and their physical environment
 Threatened species three statuses International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN):
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
  CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Critically Endangered
 Reduction population size decreased 80% last 10 years or 3
generations
 Only less 250 mature adults
 50% probability of extinction within 10 years or 3 generations
  ENDANGERED

 Endangered,
 Reduction population size decreased by 50%
 over the last 10 years or 3 generations
 Less than 2500 mature adults
 20% probability of extinction within 20 years or 5 generations
(IUCN, 2016)
  VULNERABLE

 Vulnerable
 Reduction in population size decreased by 20%
 Last 10 years or 3 generations
 Less than 10,000 mature adults
 10% probability of extinction within 100 years (IUCN, 2016)
  CITES PROTECTED
 Convention on International Trade Endangered Species Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) international agreement between
governments
 Its aim international trade (export/import) wild animals,
plants and plant parts (e.g. medicinal oil)
 In some cases, threatened species cannot traded without a
CITES permit
 E.g. Rosewood (A. rosaeodora)
 Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis)).
  NEAR THREATENED

 Essential and carrier oil-bearing plants traded without a

permit
 but classified a threatened species if not for ongoing taxon-
specific conservation programs
 Species classified Near Threatened (IUCN, 2016)
  Biodiversity and medicinal plants
 Rainforests contain no less 60% higher plant species
 Needed for human survival, remedies against disease
 Plants large numbers chemical substances
 Against insect pests and fungal and pathogenic diseases

Medicinal plants in traditional health care

 Natural manufactured drugs, plant products supreme
importance traditional health care developing countries
  Conted…

 Traditional indigenous communities, herbs

 Songs
 Dance
 Spiritual ceremonies expel bad spirits
 Plants, indigenous birth control
 procedures or counteract tangible pathogenic fungi and
parasites (e.g. worms, malaria)
  Conted…
 In Amazonia, least 1,300 plant species

Medicines
Poisons
Narcotics
 In recent years, traditional healing distant forest novel
diseases Influenza and tuberculosis
 Medicinal plants industrialized societies

 ‘Chemical' drugs largely replaced plant products mainstream

medicine
  Forage Management

 Harvested and conserved forages provide indirect nutrients

human consumption
 Managing renewable resource complex and interacting factors
 Establish
 Sustain
 Harvest
 Conserve
 Test, and utilize forages animal consumption
  Conted…
 Factors interact crucial maintaining high animal productivity
 Climate change will require new management options
 Alternative forage species
 Forage species small-hold livestock systems limited length
growing season and temperature
 Importance grasslands increases climate change, particularly
for mitigation
 Natural grasslands important carbon sink
  Conted…

 Increasing carbon dioxide will increase overall biomass

production
 Reduced forage quality
 Carbon dioxide changes species richness natural pastures
 Legumes increased carbon dioxide biological nitrogen
 Animal genetic resources

 Molecular genetic evaluation

 Genetic variance component estimation
 Molecular genetic diversity
 Between breeds
 Genetic diversity gene flow
 Phenotypic characterization
 Aquatic genetic resources

 High proportion of wild populations and range of species

 Fisheries that harvest wild populations
 Capture both target and non-target animals regulated avoid
over exploitation
 Organisms are under continual stress due to pollution, climate
change, predators and pathogens
  Wild fauna resources

 Ethiopian wild animals element represented chinkara

(antelope)
 Hyena and the ratel (like badger)
 Palearctic – the lynx (wild cat)
 Wolf, markhor (largest wild goat)
  Reasons for wildlife depletion

 Various reasons, wild species disappearing rapidly

 large number of species already gone forever
 Large percentage threatened with extinction
 Threats wildlife traced human activities
 population explosion
 Agriculture
 habitation
 developmental projects
  Domestic fauna resource

 Livestock biodiversity essential food and livelihood security

 Livestock provide

Meat Eggs
Fibers Milk
Skins manure fertilizer Fuel, draught power cultivation
Transport Range of other products and
services
  Conted…

 Domesticated animals providing services

 Seed dispersal and nutrient cycling
 Climate change, domestic animals, and emerging diseases
 Heat stress rising temperatures will impair reproduction
 Water, feed and fodder availability affected climate change
 increased demand for fuel crops
 Reduce land and water available feed crops
  Conted…

 Climate change pressures traditional breeds, generally

resistant or tolerant to diseases
 Chapter 3. Ecosystem, Biodiversity Services and Values

 Ecosystem analyzing and acting between people and their

environment
 Ecosystem Approach integrated management
 Land
 Water
 Living resources conservation and sustainable equitable way
  Application ecosystem approach three objectives

 Convention
 Conservation
 Sustainable use utilization genetic resources
 Ecosystem dynamic community comprising
populations plants, animals, microorganisms
 Non-living environment interacting together
functional unit
  Conted…

 Environmental factors
 Soil type
 Position in the landscape
 Climate and water availability
 Determine the presence
 Distribution of ecosystems
  Conted…
 Main inputs ecosystems
 Sunlight
 Soil
 Nutrients
 Water wastes one part system form fuel for other parts
 Ecosystem functions cycling energy and materials through
living organisms
 Grow
 Reproduce and die
  Conted…

 Ecosystem services many and varied benefits people

 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment identified and
categorized:
 Provisioning services
 Regulating services
 Supporting services
 Cultural services
 Provisioning services

 Ecosystems provide basic elements for life

Food Fresh water

Wood Fibre
Genetic resources Medicines
Ornamental Cultural products
 Services provided biodiversity, basis provisioning services of
ecosystems
 Essential sustaining and securing livelihoods
 Ensure health communities, security and well-being
  Conted…
 Traditional medicines and pharmaceutical industry greatly
plant biodiversity
 Valuable source genetic resources
 Human population grows
 Demand food and other resources
 Pressure ecosystems severely affected quality services
  Regulating services

 Healthy ecosystems and biodiversity

Maintain air quality Purify water

Treat waste Protect natural hazard
Erosion Pests
Diseases
 Vegetation cover helps prevent landslides and soil erosion
  Conted…

 Unique biodiversity wetland ecosystems assists

 Natural purification water
 Trees in cities reduce air pollution
 Mangrove forests
 Coral reefs protect coastal communities
 Coastlines erosion
 Full force of tsunamis and storm surges
  Conted…

 Spread of diseases
 Cholera controlled clean water, product ecosystem services
 Important natural equilibrium our planet, benefits human
security and well-being
 E.g. pest regulation, seed dispersal, disease regulation and
erosion regulation
  Supporting services

 Supporting services ecosystems

 Nutrient cycling fundamental but invisible processes,
ecosystem services depend
 Production food
 Water
 Climate regulation
  Conted…

 Basic conditions life on Earth

 E.g. food production depends on soil formation
 Greatly depends on climatic conditions as well as chemical
Biological processes carried out by bacteria and fungi
 Decompose waste and make nutrients available food crops
 Cultural service

 Cultural services non-material benefits people ecosystems

spiritual enrichment
 Cognitive development
 Reflection
 Recreation
 Aesthetic experiences
 Various spiritual and religious beliefs and customs connected
nature
  Conted…
 Many communities around world spiritual relationship nature
 Biodiversity greatly contributed and inspired cultures,
history, and arts
 Our cultural heritage, our knowledge and educational values
rooted in our natural environment
 Biodiversity measurable economic value recreation and
ecotourism
 But value spiritual enrichment and aesthetic enjoyment
measure
 Aesthetic values
 Many people beauty or aesthetic value various aspects
ecosystems
 Reflected support parks
 “scenic drives,”
 Selection housing locations

Value of biodiversity
 Human beings dependent health, well-being
 Enjoyment life basic biological systems and processes
  Conted…

 People get food and many medicines

 Industrial products wild and domesticated components
biological diversity
 Biodiversity important people because depend other species
and ecosystems create
 Biodiversity provides ecosystem services

Food Medicines
Natural products Economic benefits
Natural beauty
  Conted…

 Direct values: Plants provide sustainable development

they're primary source food could picked and spent legally
 Indirect values: Various flora and fauna regarded
 Worshipped holy and sacred some conservative societies,
traditional
 Cultural beliefs constitute anomalous incentive for
diversification
 Direct and in direct value

Indirect values
Direct Values

1. Aesthetic qualities are an unusual motivator

for biodiversity because unique views in
undisturbed areas are fascinating to see and
1. For a considerable time, fuel is an
give possibilities for leisure activities that
instant incentive for diversification.
promote the eco-travel sector.

2. Direct use values include the economic 2. Services like as pollination by bees and
advantages derived from directly forest vegetation management for oxygen and water
wood, fuel wood, edible plants, and so on cycles are examples of indirect values.
 Chapter 4. MEASURING AND MONITORING BIODIVERSITY

Measuring biodiversity
 Counting animals and plants, mapping genes, and
systematically comparing ecosystems ultimately estimate
 Field conservation, biodiversity consideration an area;
quantify
 Conserved essential good planning and management
 Why measure biodiversity?
 Reasons to measure biodiversity
 To concerns over species extinction
 To clearly conservation goals and objectives
 To evaluate conservation strategies working or not
 To clearly measures can help demonstrate the relative
success/failure
 Alternative conservation strategies of meeting goals/objectives
  Measuring Genetic diversity

 Genetic diversity causes tulips different colors and different

heights
 Measuring biodiversity genetic level requires gene map
 Compare genetic make-up larger population
 Method measuring genetic diversity reverse evaluating
differences physical appearance
 Individuals attributes traits most likely genetic roots
  Conted…

 Measuring biodiversity over spatial scales

Alpha
Beta
Gamma diversity
Species richness (Alpha diversity)
 Biological diversity measured different ways
 Measuring diversity richness and evenness
  Conted…

 Richness measure number different kinds organisms present

particular area
 Diversity not only on richness, but on evenness
 Evenness compares similarity population size species present
 Challenges measuring species diversity
 Lack of available data
 Conducting a full count number of species nearly impossible
 Conted…
 Species richness common measuring biodiversity
 Involves counting the number of individuals - or even families
– within a given area
 Alpha diversity (α-diversity)
 R = (N)
 Altitude increases, species richness decreases
 Indicating an effect of area
 Available energy
 Isolation and/or zonation (intermediate elevations can receive
species from higher and lower)
  Species Evenness

 Evenness measure relative abundance different species

making up richness an area
 For Example: If we have sampled two different fields for
wildflowers
 The sample from first field consists 200 flowers A, 225
flowers B and 265 flowers C
 The sample from second field comprises 20 flowers A, 49
flowers B and 641 flowers C
  Conted…
 Shannon-wienner index as follow

 Shannon’s evenness index (E) =

 Where (pl) proportion of individuals in the ith species
 S is number of species in the sample
 Simpson index

D=1-∑Pi2
 Calculation of species diversity using the Shannon winner index, H
Community A Community B

Species # of individuals Species # of individuals

A 59 A 21

B 12 B 20

C 11 C 19

D 10 D 14

E 5 E 13

F 3 F 13

Total 100 Total 100

 E. g for the Simpson index diversity

 D=1-∑Pi2
Community D Level of diversity

1 0.09 Very high

2 0.52 Moderate

3 0.9 Low
  Ecosystem diversity (Beta Diversity)
 Beta diversity measures present and changes species
diversity between ecosystems
 Calculates number of species not the same two different
environments
 Normalized scale, 0 to 1
 A high beta diversity index a low level of similarity
 Low beta diversity index shows a high level of similarity
 β = (S1 − c) + (S2 − c)
 Taxonomic diversity of a region with several ecosystems -
(Gamma diversity)
 Total species richness over a large area or region
 Gamma diversity richness species of a range habitats in a
geographic area
(γ = S1 + S2 − c)
 The internal relationship between alpha, beta and gamma
diversity can be represented as
(β = γ / α)
  Physiognomic and Floristic Data

 Methods Vegetation Description Based on Physiognomy and

Structure
 Why classification of vegetation is important?
 Integrates ecological processes acting site
 Landscape measurably other factor or set of factors
 Vegetation critical component energy flow ecosystems
 Provides habitat many organisms
 Vegetation used to infer soil and climate patterns
 Criteria used classification of vegetation
 Vegetation classified basis different attributes plant
communities
 A. Physiognomic classifications
 Physiognomic classification physiognomy (i.e. functional
and morphological attributes) dominant plants community
 Physiognomic classifications useful to describe vegetation of
large areas
  Conted…

 Physiognomic classifications called formations, arranged in a

hierarchical system
 formations important vertical (i.e. stratification)
 Horizontal (i.e. open- or closed-canopy) structure plant
community
B. Environmental classifications
 Environmental factors climate and soil conditions
 Important effect resulting structure and composition of plant
communities
 C. Physiognomic-environmental classifications
 Physiognomy already implies adaptation environmental
conditions
 Pure physiognomic classifications already informative
respect environmental conditions
 Combine physiognomy of plant communities ecology

Mainly climate
Soil
Biogeography
 D. Floristic classifications

 Floristic classifications basis community types, the taxonomic

identity plants community
 Unlike, physiognomic classifications, only, related structure
and general environmental conditions
 Floristic classifications bear historical and bio geographical
information
 Floristic classifications arise vegetation data obtained using
vegetation plots
 Methods of Vegetation Description Based on Floristic
 Quadrat Sampling
 Sampling with quadrats (plots of a standard size) can be used
for most plant communities
 A quadrat vegetation cover estimated, plants counted, or
species listed
 Quadrats established randomly, regularly, or subjectively
within a study site
  Conted…
 A plot size large enough to include significant numbers of
individuals
 Small enough plants separated, counted and measured
without duplication or omission of individuals
 Large quadrats many plants require two or more people an
accurate census
 Cover, density, and frequency important aspects plant
community
 Sampling Design for Vegetation Description and Analysis

 Systematic sampling
 A type of probability sampling method random starting points
with fixed intervals select members from a larger population
 Interval, called sampling interval, is calculated by dividing
the population size by the desired sample size
 Systematically and regularly spacing plots according to a
predetermined grid
 Rapid and easy to use in the field
 Assures good distribution and uniform coverage target
population
  Random sampling

 A plots or areas selected each sampling unit (i.e., plot or plant)

random
 Any potential area or plot selected has an equal chance

 Applicable small forest areas or stands (i.e. homogenous)

population
 Plant populations and habitats are rarely distributed evenly and
randomly across the landscape
 A sample of random units may or may not represent the
landscape
  Stratified Sampling

 First divide a population into smaller subgroups, or strata

 Applicable small or medium sized forest area strata due
to heterogeneity
 The stratification based on

Species composition
Age distribution
Vegetation cover
Altitude
 HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
 Areas high species richness and high species endemism hot spots
of bio diversity
 25 hot spots of biodiversity on a global level

 Two present in India

Eastern Himalayas
Western Ghats
 India hotspots not only rich floral wealth and endemic species of
plants
 Reptiles, amphibians, swallow tailed butterflies and some
mammals
 Monitoring of biodiversity
 Monitoring not the same as measuring biodiversity
 Monitoring continuing process managers to identify changes
and trends over time
 M&E plans resourced sustainably
 The information gathered M&E activities is useful both for
assessing the impacts of the individual project
 Provide input into the design and implementation of future
biodiversity projects
 Most useful and effective, monitoring indicators
 Cost-effective to monitor
 Measurable
 Reveal meaningful trends
 Consistent, i.e. continue to measure the same thing over time
 Require involvement minimum possible number individuals
and agencies evaluation
  Chapter 5. BIODIVERSITY LOSS

 Pressures on biodiversity include:

 Changes land cover
 Over-exploitation of natural resources
 Pollution
 Climate change
 Invasive alien species
 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

 Growing human population

 Over-hunting/over-exploitation
 Habitat loss/ degradation/fragmentation
 Deforestation
 Invasion of non-native species
 Pollution
 Climate change
 Over-exploitation
 Humans depended nature food and shelter
 Major Causes of Biodiversity Loss in Ethiopia

 Changes in natural land use

 Pollution
 Variations in CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere
 Changes in the nitrogen cycle
 Acid rain
 Climate change
 Introduction of exotic species
 Human-induced biodiversity loss
 Habitat fragmentation
 Threat fragmentation
 Degradation
 Over-exploitation of natural resources
 Pollution of air and water
 Introduction of non-native (alien, or exotic) species
 Climate change
 Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation

 Habitat destruction destroying natural habitats

 Species live can no longer survive
 Habitat destruction primarily caused by human activity
 Harvest natural resources industrial production and
urbanization
 Natural environmental shift brought on by
 habitat fragmentation
 geological processes
 Climate change
F. g Deforestation and Forest Degradation photo
  Edge effect
 Edge is boundary, or interface, between two biological groups
or between distinct landscape components
 Edges might be "natural" or "man-made
 Topographic differences:
 e.g., so-called tree line, boundary tree growth gives way to
alpine conditions on mountains
 Grasslands in low-elevation dry valleys
  Invasive species

 Species is a plant or animal that is not native to a certain place

(introduced species invasive)
 Potential to spread, harming environment, human economy,
and human health
 Weed describe a non-native or invasive species
 Turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous
species
  Conted…

 E.g. environmental damage caused and threat posed

to our native species by invasive weed species
 like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water
hyacinth (Eicchornia)
 Recent illegal introduction African catfish Clarias gariepinus
aquaculture purposes threat indigenous catfishes in our rivers
 Pollution
 Pollution: Chemical contaminant certainly poses a further threat
to species and ecosystems
 Not commonly a cause of extinction
 Species range extremely small
 Threatened by contamination
 Air pollution
 Impact of air pollution on biodiversity is enormous
 Suffer from pollution:
 Atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere
  Conted…
 Plants are frequently hurt more than animals on land
 Maintain their biological activity, plants require atmospheric
gases such as air on a regular basis
 Two categories of pollution sources:

Fixed
Many point sources
 Stationary point sources wood burning fires
 Automobiles and other mobile vehicles typical instances
numerous point sources
  Conted…

 Greatest major source pollution atmosphere is carbon

monoxide-emitting vehicles
 Water Pollution
 Water contamination, among other things, ability to cause
long-term alterations biodiversity
 Harm caused ecosystems, human health, and water-based
activities (swimming, diving, fishing, etc.)
  Conted…
 Far-reaching ramifications contamination ground and surface
fresh water, oceans, and rains (in the form of acid rain)
 Industry major source of pollution, all water pollution and

harmful contaminants
 Eutrophication
 phenomenon occurs aquatic ecosystems: lakes, ponds, sluggish

rivers, and river mouths

 Algae increase a consistent source of nutrients ( phosphorous

and nitrogen)
 Algae absorb an enormous oxygen during breakdown
 Climate Change
 A changing global climate threatens species and ecosystems
 Distribution species (biogeography) is largely determined by
climate
 Distribution ecosystems and plant vegetation zones (biomes)
 Degree of threats species, categories different conservation
category:
Extinct
Endangered
Vulnerable
Risk
 Conted…
 Every species role in the environment.
 Endemic species: Species restricted to a particular region
Ecosystem various environmental factors or barriers dispersal
 Rare species: Some species are naturally rare due to presence
small numbers
 CO2 levels atmosphere predicted to climb over next century
 making most important drivers global biodiversity loss
 Conted…
 Tropical forest ecosystems

 Disposed significantly greater changes than world averages

 Variations frequency and intensity impact biodiversity, linked

anthropogenic climate change
 Changes average temperatures, precipitation, and sea level

 Species' ranges migrated pole ward and upward elevation

 Temperature, rainfall

 CO2 concentrations, and ocean dynamics likely impact

biodiversity all levels, including gene, species, and habitat
diversity
  Population Explosion

 Important habitats, ecosystems, lost or degraded

 Examples biological diversity
 Genetic pool
 Distribution
 Diversity species
 Ecosystems
 Over exploitation
 Over exploitation, known as over harvesting, happens
 Over use natural resources resource degradation, including
extinction
 Over grazing in stock management
 Over logging in forest management
 Over drafting in aquifer management
 Over exploitation native flora and fauna introduced predators
and herbivores
 Example, does not unsustainable or result resource
degradation
 ROOT CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS IN ETHIOPIA

 Direct threats and Root causes ecosystem biodiversity

 Clearing Agriculture
 Conversion natural forests, woodlands
 Savannah ecosystems agriculture greatest single threat
ecosystem biodiversity
 Conted…
 Root causes clearing agriculture include:
 Population growth
 Low productivity agriculture
 Unsustainable agricultural systems (soil erosion and
inability to maintain soil fertility)
 Over-cutting and unsustainable levels harvest
 Over-harvest both woody and non woody products
 Basis deforestation, ecosystem degradation and biodiversity
loss
 Over-grazing
 Over grazing decreased soil cover
 Increased erosion
 Decreased quality and productivity range resources
 Reduction or elimination natural regeneration woody species
 Over-hunting
 Wildlife population severely depleted by over-hunting
 Root causes lack incentives local people conserve wildlife
 Availability fire arms
 Conflicts between wildlife and farmers
 Alien invasive species
 Alien invasive species
 Ecosystem disruption by destroying or displacing indigenous
species through rapid reproduction and expansion
 Conted…
 Increasing demands rapidly growing human population
 Fast growing exotics introduced to alleviate shortages

Timber
Fodder
Fuel wood
 Expanded exotics tree species Eucalyptus species
 Change in fire regime

 Change in fire regime Fire basic part ecology semi-arid

rangeland ecosystem
 Elimination or reduced frequency fire often results
 Bush encroachment
 Greatly reduced forage production
 Major changes structure
 Species composition vegetation
 Climate change/drought
 Climate change/drought Average global temperature rising
 Natural fluctuation
 Build-up greenhouse gases
 Reduce biodiversity and goods and services Ecosystems
supply in Ethiopia by:
 Increasing desertification arid and semi-arid areas
 Increasing flooding
 Desiccation and die-back forests
 Reduced agricultural production
 Cross-cutting Causes of Biodiversity Loss

 Direct threats and root causes cross cutting causes biodiversity

loss
 Global Biodiversity Strategy fundamental causes biodiversity
loss
 Unsustainably high human population growth and consumption
 Economic fail value environment and resources
 Inequity ownership, management and flow benefits and
conservation biological resources
 Deficiencies knowledge and application
 Legal and institutional promote unsustainable exploitation
 Population growth and Increasing Demand Natural
Resources

 Increasing natural resource consumption aggravated Ethiopia

by low primary productivity in:
 Agriculture
 Rangelands
 Forestry
 Fisheries
 Conted…
 Three main contributing factors low productivity:

Limited availability water technology for irrigated agriculture,

Poor land and crop management
Land degradation and soil erosion
Some scope increasing agricultural land in Ethiopia primarily
low lands by
 Improving technical knowledge farmers increase production
capacity
 Economic systems and valuation environment and resources

 Exploit natural resources Ethiopia without taking full account

social costs habitat losses or extinction, nor shared equitably
 Social benefits conserving biodiversity rarely taken account
 Social benefits conserving biodiversity
 Example, biodiversity conserved in Siemen Mountains
 Bale Mountains and forests, yields benefits people
 Other countries provide potentially important goods (e.g.
medicinal properties of plants)
 Biogeochemical services (e.g. carbon sequestration)
 Inequity in Ownership
 Market and intervention failures motivated weak ownership
regimes natural resources
 A large proportion Ethiopia’s forests, rangelands open access
resources
 Ineffectively controlled under crumbling common property
regimes and state
 Open access probably most equitable all access systems
 Inevitably leads destruction resource and pressures resource
build
 Deficiencies in knowledge and its application
 Education brings about economic growth through increasing
individuals’ productive capacity
 Education achieve more rapid
 Technological adaptation
 Innovation
 Better natural resource management
 Conted…
 Education most powerful instruments
 Reducing deprivation
 Reducing vulnerability
 Expands labor mobility
 Promotes health parents and children
 Reduces fertility and child mortality
 Legal and institutional systems promote unsustainable
exploitation

 Under-valuation environmental resources low-level awareness

role ecosystems
 Lost and poor regard conservation problems contributed
marginalization biological resource management
 Land use policies
 Land tenure system major factor poor adoption land
improvement and management practices
 Conted…
 Need account trade-offs between long-term against short-term
benefits
 Exploiting a natural resource short-run poverty alleviation
benefits
 Long-run costs resource destruction/degradation, loss
biodiversity or accumulation greenhouse gasses
 Land security enhances proper land management and
increased productivity
 Conted…
 State administers land, farmers may not feel secure enough
 Soil protection
 Land improvement activities
 Policy and Law enforcement
 Government conservation effort undermined number factors
 Weak management
 Poor government sectors
 Weak law enforcement capacity
 Lack facilities/ infrastructure
 Consequences Biodiversity Loss

Genetic Erosion
 Beginning agriculture, farmers domesticated hundreds plant
species migration
 Genetic variability increased owing migration
 Unconscious or conscious selection
 Impact humans upon biodiversity gradually increased
 Growing technology, population, production and consumption
rates
 Conted…
 Genetic erosion crops loss variability from crop populations
Variability heterogeneity alleles and genotypes
 Genetic erosion normal addition and disappearance of genetic
variability
 Species extinction
 Species extinction natural process without intervention
humans
 Over geological time, all species have a finite span existence
 Conted…
 Humans exterminate species either directly
 Hunting
 Collection
 Persecution
 Indirectly habitat destruction and modification
 Habitat destruction and fragmentation
 Climate change
 Species invasions, pollution, and over fishing
 Loss of ecosystem services and livelihood

 Ecosystem services directly related people’s livelihood

strategies
 Changes in ecosystem services showed impacts on people’s
dependency especially fishing and agriculture
 Loss genes and individuals threatens the long-term survival of
a species
 Biodiversity lowers ecosystem’s productivity
 Lowers the quality of the ecosystem’s services
 Conted…
 Biodiversity loss threatens structure and proper functioning
ecosystem
 Reduced biodiversity “ecosystem homogenization”
throughout biosphere
 Specialist species
 Adapted to narrow habitats
 Limited food resources
 Specific environmental conditions
 Conted…
 Vulnerable dramatic population declines and extection
conditions change
 Generalist species
 Adapted wide variety of habitats
 Adapted food resources
 Adapted environmental conditions
 Species favored by human beings (i.e., livestock, pets, crops,
and ornamental plants)
 Major players ecosystems vacated by specialist species
Chapter 6. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Conservation science protection, preservation, management,

rehabilitation/ restoration
Components biodiversity including wild & domesticated flora
& fauna different levels
Conservation survival :
Wildlife Forests
Other habitats Species
Bio-resources Genetic forms
Various forms bio-cultures heritages people
 Why conserve biodiversity?

 Main purposes biodiversity conservation

 Biodiversity contributed development human culture
 Human communities major roles shaping diversity nature
genetic, species and ecological levels
 Biodiversity conserved harmony immediate environment
 Mother Earth while getting important benefits (ecological,
economic, ethical and scientific)
 Which Areas & Species Conserve?

 Hotspots biodiversity: Concentrate areas biodiversity hotspots

best utilization limited land and resources:
 Threatened habitats
 Threatened species: IUCN Red List of species
 Most well-known objective assessment classifying status
 Plants
 Animals
 Other organisms threatened with extinction
IUCN system uses a set five quantitative criteria assess extinction
risk given species
1. The rate population decline
2. The geographic range
3. Whether species already possesses a small population size
4. Whether species very small or lives in a restricted area
5. Whether results quantitative analysis indicate a high probability
extinction wild
 E.g. IUCN Red List

 African Forest Elephant – Critically Endangered

 African Savannah Elephant – Endangered

 Needs Conservation of Biodiversity

 3 main objectives Biodiversity Conservation are as follows-

 Protect and preserve species diversity
 Ensure sustainable management species and ecosystems
 Prevention and restoration ecological processes and life
support systems
1.Protection existence of living beings
 Important wealth nature
 Ensure existence and improve their heredity
 2.Sustainability of resources

 Biodiversity source products from

 Agriculture
 Animals
 Medicinal herbs
 Necessary make rational biodiversity proper conservation
 3. Promotion of natural scene

 Vegetation, animals, birds

and other creatures have
ornamented land topography
 Helps development tourism
 4. Balance in natural process

 Birth and death of living

beings, decomposition
are going natural way in
the ecosystem
 Animals and plants help
in the operation of these
activities
 5. Socio-economic development

 Biodiversity provides
materials used for different
purposes like food, clothes,
industry
 Materials used for economic
and social development
 6. Study and research area

 Biodiversity wide area for

study and research
 Findings research can be
used for the welfare of
human beings
 Use of Recent Concepts Biodiversity Conservation

 Conservation efforts usually single species two main reasons

 Some keystone species key ecological role ecosystem

 Some species important elements environment rallying and

flagship species
 Keystone species

 A species exerts great influence ecosystem relative abundance

 Species exert influence dominant element, predator, pollinator,

dispersal agent
 Key environmental functions loss

 Greater than average change species populations or ecosystem

processes
 Flagship Species
 A species selected ambassador, image or symbol defined
habitat, or environmental issue
E. g. Mountain Nyala and Ethiopian Wolf BMNP,
Walia SMNP
 Using these species will attract more resources to conserve
entire biodiversity area
 Conted…
 Priority Species flagship or keystone species selected
represent an eco-region or region
E.g. Mountain Nyala
 Umbrella Species are species named hope saving a whole
range plants, animals & Microorganisms given area
 Foundation Species is a dominant primary producer ecosystem
both abundance and influence
E.g. Acacia in Acacia woodland ecosystem
 Conted…

 Indicator Species unique environmental/ biodiversity status

indicators biological condition watershed or ecosystem
 Complementarities is a method used to select areas of
conservation
 Find areas sum total high BD representation
 Two, three, areas highest measure conservation would
give better chances saving more areas & species
 Principles for Conserving Biodiversity

 Every form life unique, and warrants respect from humanity

 Investment yields large local, national, global benefits
 Costs and benefits equitably among nations and among people
within nations
 Sustained only if public awareness
 Concern substantially heightened
 If policy-makers have access reliable information upon base
policy
 What is a Biodiversity Conservation Strategy?
 Biodiversity conservation strategy’ plan enhance and protect
variety native species
 Biodiversity conservation strategies produced British
Columbia, both municipal and regional level
 Local and regional biodiversity conservation strategies
 Conservation of Ecosystems: provide long term viability
ecosystems
 Threats removed and ecosystems should continue
ecological processes
 Conted…
 Reverse the decline of species- Aim conservation restore
population declined species particular ecosystem
 Conservation of all biological aspects- Aims giving cover
and conserving:
Food
Livestock
Microbial population
Agricultural stock including plants and animals
 Conted…
 Efficient utilization natural resources
 Strict laws deforestation and preventions deforestation
 Poaching and killing animals wild prevented
 Creating public awareness conservation biodiversity and
importance
 Breeding species captivity reintroduced wild
 Genetic techniques preserve endangered species
 Conted…

 Control emerging threats -Aims address threats biodiversity

before their impacts fully realized
 Strategies (approaches) adapting climate change include:
 Passive adaptation improve resilience of natural system
 Maintaining functional area
 Ensuring representativeness environment and associated
processes
 Removing and minimizing existing stress
 Conted…

 Active adaptation manipulate ecological processes partially

direct nature
 Restoring habitats and system dynamics
 Identifying and protecting climate refuge
 Managing /restoring connectivity
 Increasing matrix permeability and functional connectivity
 Mega diversity Countries

 Biologically, not all countries are equal, some wealthier

 Species are not distributed uniformly across globe
 Some habitats, particularly tropical forests among terrestrial
systems, possess a greater number or density species than
others
 Mega diversity Countries: refer world’s top biodiversity-
rich countries
 Country-focused method raises national awareness
biodiversity conservation nations high biological diversity
 Conted…
 Many species unique to a specific country

 Concept was first proposed in 1988 by Russell Mittermeier

 Mega diversity Countries are:

United States of America Mexico

Colombia Ecuador
Peru Philippines,
Venezuela Brazil
Democratic Republic of Congo South Africa
Madagascar India
Malaysia Indonesia
Papua New Guinea China
Australia
 Criteria for classification

 principle criterion endemism, first species level and higher

taxonomic levels genus and family
 Qualify Mega diversity Country, a country must:
 Have at least 5000 world’s plants endemics
 Have marine ecosystems within borders

 17 countries rich in biological diversity

 Traditional knowledge Like Minded Mega diversity

Countries
IUCN Protected area management categories and definitions

 A protected area “ achieve long-term conservation nature

ecosystem services and cultural values
 World conservation union (IUCN) protected area
 Six associated management categories protected area
 Category Ia (strict nature reserve)

Set aside protect biodiversity

geological/geomorphological
features
Human visitation, use and
impacts strictly controlled
Limited protection
conservation values
 Category Ib (wilderness area)

 Usually large unmodified or

slightly modified area
 keep natural character and
influence
 without permanent or
significant human habitation
 protected and managed
preserve natural condition
 Category II (national park)
 Protect large-scale ecological
processes
 Complement species &
ecosystems characteristic area
 Provide foundation
environmentally & culturally
compatible spiritual
 Scientific, educational,
recreational and visitor
opportunities
 Category IV (habitat/species management area)

 Protect particular species or

habitats
 Many will need regular
active interventions address
requirements particular
species
 Maintain habitats
 Category V (protected landscape) protect areas

 Interaction people and nature

over time has produced an
area
 Distinct character significant
ecological, biological, cultural
and scenic value
 Interaction vital protecting
and sustaining area
 Category VI (protected areas with sustainable use natural
resources)

 Protects ecosystems and

habitats

 Cultural values and traditional

natural resource management

 Sustainable natural resource

management

 Low-level non-industrial use

natural resources compatible

with nature conservation

 Biodiversity Conservation Methods (Approaches )

 Two types methods employed conserve biodiversity

 In situ conservation
 Ex-situ conservation

In Situ Conservation
 In situ Conservation preservation and protection species
natural habitat
 Conted…

 In-situ ultimate conservation strategy

 Implementation is sometimes difficult
When habitat rare or endangered species destroyed
ex-situ conservation needed
Ensuring on-farm conservation agro biodiversity
 In situ, biodiversity conservation has many advantages

 It preserves species natural habitat

 It ensures protection large number = populations
 It economic and a convenient method conservation
 It doesn’t require species adjust new habitat
 Disadvantages of In-situ Conservation
 A large surface area earth is required to preserve the
biodiversity
 Maintenance of the habitats is not proper, due to shortage of
staff and pollution
 Connectivity and corridors

 Connectivity functional relationship among habitat patches

 Spatial infection habitat and movement responses organisms
landscape structure
 Need consider connectivity relation spatially dependent
evolutionary processes
 Emphasized potential synergies between climate change and
habitat loss
 Connectivity’ conservation various kinds connections including :

 Structural configuration habitats or habitat patches landscape

mosaic
 Permeability landscape mosaic dispersal and movement
specific species
 Presence or absence barriers or impediments natural flux
water, nutrients, or fire experienced landscape
 Corridors
 Linear corridors establish or maintain relatively straight-line
connections
 Between larger habitat blocks and extend over distances up to
tens kilometers
 Corridor’ used conservation:
 Biodiversity corridors called biological corridors
 Large-scale landscape linkages covering hundreds thousands
square kilometers
 Ex-situ Conservation
 Conservation elements biodiversity out of contexts natural
settings with respect habitats and practices
 Zoos animal diversity conservation
 Botanical gardens conservation of plants
 Field gene banks: It assemblage diverse plant species and
their range genetic diversity in an area
 Conted…
 Planting plants for conservation gene
 Compare difference among plants different species
 It needs more land, adequate soil, weather
 Germ plasma important crops conserved through this method
 Field genebanks large areas planted germplasm originating
from different parts country
 Examples include:
Coffee field gene bank in Jimma Zone
Fruit trees and spices field gene bank in Jimma
 Medicinal plant field gene bank in Wondogenet
 Seed banks: Seed banks efficient
 Effective methods ex situ conservation sexually reproducing
seeds under long term storage
 Advantages of Ex-situ Conservation
 Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care

and attention
 In captive breeding, animals assured food, water, shelter and

also security and hence longer life span

 Dis advantages Ex-situ Conservation

 It is expensive method

 The freedom of wildlife is lost

 The animals cannot survive in natural environment

 It can be adopted only for few selected species

 Chapter 7. INTERNATIONAL TREATIES ON
BIODIVERSITY
 ConventionBiologicalDiversity(CBD) informally
Biodiversity Convention, multilateral treaty
 Importance challenge sustaining biodiversity face increasing
human impact universally acknowledged
 Earth Summit held Rio de Janeiro 1992
 Convention on Biological Diversity opened signature by
national governments
 Conted…
 Legally binding treaty first global agreement conservation and
sustainable biodiversity
 Genetic resources
 Species
 Ecosystems
 First define biodiversity context
 Social
 Economic
 Other environmental issues
 Global Biodiversity Framework

 New plan, post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF),

developed guide action 2030
 Draft framework number of ambitious goals
 Commitment designate least 30 percent global land
 Sea protected areas (known as "30 by 30" initiative
 Reducing agricultural pollution
 Sharing benefits digital sequence information
 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity

 Tenth meeting Conference Parties, held from 18 to 29 October

2010 Nagoya, a revised
 Updated "Strategic Plan Biodiversity, 2011-2020
 Strategic plan following strategic goals:
 Strategic Goal A: Address causes biodiversity loss by
mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society
 Strategic Goal B: Reduce direct pressures biodiversity and
promote sustainable use
 Conted…
 Strategic Goal C: Improve status biodiversity by preservation
ecosystems, species and genetic diversity
 Strategic Goal D: Enhance benefits all biodiversity and
ecosystem services
 Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation participatory
planning, knowledge management and capacity building
 Identification and monitoring

 Both potential and actual threats biological diversity

 Important component any data collection and management
programmes
 Biodiversity monitoring should promote and coordinate
development;
 International
 National
 Regional
 Local monitoring programmes
 general purposes monitoring results ecosystem
protection
 Assess status threats and conservation targets
 Evaluate effectiveness measures
 Document status individual habitats or populations
 Provide a basis for (inter)national reporting
 Provide a working basis develop targeted action plans or
measures
 Inform and improve management practice adaptive
management process
 Conted…
 Detect threats and negative changes early stage

Conserve and sustainably use biological diversity benefit

present and future generations
 Article 1. Objectives
 Objectives Convention, pursued accordance relevant
provisions
 Conservation biological diversity, sustainable use
components, fair and equitable sharing
 Article 2. Use of Terms

 Biological diversity" variability among living organisms from

all sources including,
 Inter alia
 Terrestrial
 Marine and other aquatic ecosystems
 Diversity within species
 Between species
 Ecosystems
 Article 3. Principle

 Principles international law, sovereign right exploit their

own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies
 Responsibility ensure activities
 Article 4. Jurisdictional Scope
 Biological diversity, areas limits national jurisdiction
 Case processes and activities, regardless effects occur,
carried out under jurisdiction or control
 Article 5. Cooperation
 Respect areas beyond national jurisdiction
 Other matters mutual interest, conservation and sustainable
use biological diversity
 Article 6. General Measures for Conservation and
Sustainable Use
 Develop national strategies, plans or programmes
conservation and sustainable biological diversity
 Integrate, far possible and appropriate, conservation and
sustainable biological diversity
 Article 7. Identification and Monitoring

 Identify components biological diversity important

conservation and sustainable
 Monitor, sampling and other techniques, biological diversity
identified pursuant to sub paragraph
 Identify processes and categories activities significant adverse
impacts conservation and sustainable
 Maintain and organize, any mechanism data, derived
identification and monitoring activities
 Article 8. In-situ Conservation
 Establish a system of protected areas
 Develop, where necessary, guidelines selection, establishment
and management protected areas
 Regulate or manage biological resources important
conservation of biological diversity
 Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats
 Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development
in areas adjacent to protected areas
 Article 9. Ex-situ Conservation

 Adopt measures ex-situ conservation

 Establish and maintain facilities ex-situ conservation
 Research on plants, animals and micro-organisms
 Adopt measures recovery and rehabilitation threatened
species
 Regulate and manage collection biological resources natural
habitats
 Article 10. Sustainable Use of Components of Biological
Diversity
 Integrate consideration conservation
 Sustainable use of biological resources national decision-
making
 Adopt measures relating use of biological resources to avoid
or minimize adverse impacts
 Support local populations develop and implement remedial
action in degraded areas
 Article 11. Incentive Measures

 Adopt economically and socially sound measures incentives

conservation and sustainable use
 Education and Biodiversity
 Education and Biodiversity mechanisms fulfill
convention’s objectives
 CBD acknowledges importance public education and
awareness crucial tool
 Environmental Education (EE) and Education Sustainable
Development (ESD)
 Exchange of information

 Biodiversity information non-digital images (photographs,

drawings) landscapes, specimens, and technology
(instruments, methodological flow diagrams)
 Future consideration moving images ( video tapes recording
wildlife behavior) and sound recordings
 Technology transfer
 Technology transfer context biodiversity concerns
 Knowledge
 Methods
 Technologies various economic sectors
 Like agriculture, forestry and fisheries achieve objectives
CBD
 Cartagena Protocol (Biosafety)

 Protocol international legally binding treaty sets procedures

 Mechanisms applied trans boundary movements Living
Modified Organisms
 Living Modified Organisms (LMOs- living organisms
possesses a novel combination genetic material
 Obtained modern biotechnology (genetic modification)
 Protocol does not apply other products bio technology
 Biosafety one issues addressed Convention
 Nagoya Genetic Resources Protocol

 Nagoya Protocol Access Genetic Resources and Fair and

Equitable Sharing Benefits
 protocol is supplementary agreement Convention on
Biological Diversity
 Montreal Protocol signed in September 1987
 International response significant threats environment and
human health
 Posed by continued use of ozone depleting substances (ODS)
global economy
 Conted…
 Treaty protects ozone layer by establishing controls
consumption and production chemicals
 Many industrial
 Commercial
 Consumer applications across a range of economic sectors
 Kyoto Protocol
 Kyoto Protocol, Japan. negotiated in December 1997
 Implementation United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change
 Protocol sets targets industrialized nations reduce emissions
greenhouse gases over next 10 years
 Mechanisms work emissions reductions or through
enhancements ability of terrestrial ecosystems to absorb
carbon
 Group assignments 10%
1. Afro alpine and sub afro-alpine ecosystems (Group 1)
2. Moist evergreen montane forest ecosystems (Group 2)
3. Low land semi-evergreen forest ecosystems (Group 3)
4.Desert and semi-desert scrubland ecosystems (Group 4)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES)

 Annually, international wildlife trade worth billions dollars

 Includes hundreds millions plant and animal specimens
 Trade diverse, ranging from live animals and plants
 Vast array wildlife products including
 Food products
 Exotic leather goods
 Wooden musical instruments
 Timber
 Tourist curios and medicines
 Conted…
 Trade specimens selected species controls a licensing trade
does not threaten survival
 Elephant symbol Africa and nature conservation
 Major pan- African project entitled Monitoring Illegal Killing
Elephants
 Madagascar major global Centre biodiversity unique species
plants and animals
 Convention on Migratory Species Wild Animals (CMS)

 Convention Conservation Migratory Species Wild Animals

 United Nations Environmental Programmes, aims conserving
and managing
 Terrestrial
 Marine
 Avian migratory species throughout range
 Conted…
 African fauna very rich
 Abundant migratory species
 Migrating from Europe and Asia
 Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar)
 Provides framework national action and international
cooperation conservation and wise use wetlands
 Convention has one funding mechanism devoted region:
Swiss Grant for Africa
 Conted…
 Wetland restoration/rehabilitation programs or projects
developed and implemented several countries
 Preparation and implementation management plans Ramsar
sites becoming a common practice African
 World Heritage Convention (WHC)
 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO)
 Encourage identification, protection and preservation cultural
and natural heritage
 Around world outstanding value to humanity
 Conted…
 Convention Protection World Cultural and Natural Heritage’
adopted by UNESCO in 1972
 Convention links together single document
 Nature conservation and preservation cultural properties,
recognizing people interact with nature
 46 countries in sub-Saharan Africa ratified Convention
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
(ITPGRFA)

 Conservation and sustainable plant genetic resources food and

agriculture
 Fair and equitable sharing benefits Convention on Biological
Diversity, sustainable agriculture and food security
 Conted…
 Contracting parties shall develop and maintain
 Appropriate policy and legal measures promote sustainable
plant genetic resources food and agriculture
 Contribution farmers and their communities
 Farmers’ Rights include protection traditional knowledge
 Right participate equitably benefit-sharing and national
decision-making
 Governments responsible for realizing rights
International Treaty, and other crops provide about 80% our
food from plants
 Treaty’s Benefit-sharing Fund

 Sustainable use

 On farm management and conservation

 Information exchange, technology transfer and capacity building

 African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural

resources
 Conservation, utilization and development soil, water, flora and

faunal resources
 Accordance scientific principles and regard best interests
people
  purposes present Convention

 Natural Resources” means renewable resources, soil, water,

flora and fauna
 Specimen” means individual example species wild animal or
wild plant
 Trophy” means any dead animal specimen or part
 Conservation area” protected natural resource area
 Strict natural reserve
 National park
 Special reserve
 UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization

 UNESCO was born 16 November 1945

 UNESCO 195 Members and 8 Associate Members
 Governed General Conference and Executive Board
 UNESCO’s mission building culture peace
 Eradication poverty
 Sustainable development
 Intercultural dialogue through education
 Sciences, culture, communication and information
 Conted…
 UNESCO works create conditions dialogue among
 Civilizations
 Cultures
 Peoples
 Respect commonly shared values

 Dialogue world achieve global visions

 Sustainable development human rights

 Mutual respect and alleviation poverty

 Heart UNESCO’s mission and activities

 Conted…
 Range programs and activities led by UNESCO aims
 Promoting cultural heritage
 Protecting freedom of expression
 Supporting knowledge sharing
 Scientific development
 Strengthening between nations
 Number of overarching objectives:
 Attaining quality education all and lifelong learning
 Mobilizing science knowledge and policy sustainable
development
 Addressing emerging social and ethical challenges
 Fostering cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and a
culture peace
 Building inclusive knowledge societies through information
and communication
Chapter 8. BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION IN
ETHIOPIA

CURRENT STATUS AND THREATS

 Physiography
 Ethiopia is a great geographical and climatic diversity
 Varied ecological systems
 Rainfall pattern Ethiopia influenced two rain-bearing wind
systems
 Conted…
 Monsoonal wind South Atlantic and Indian Ocean
 Winds Arabian Sea
 Two wind systems alternate, causing different rainfall regimes
different parts country
 Ethiopia’s soil units comprise different soil types, relatively
good agricultural potential
 NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA
 Identify or classify ecosystems Ethiopia very limited or nonexistent far

 Vegetation types country ecosystems

 New classification ecosystems Ethiopia:

 Afro alpine and Sub-Afro alpine

 Dry Evergreen Montane Forest

 Grassland Complex

 Moist Evergreen Montane Forest

 Acacia-Commiphora Woodland

 Combretum-Terminalia Woodland

 Lowland Semi-evergreen Forest

 Desert and Semi- Desert Scrubland

 Inland Waters
 Afro alpine and Sub afro alpine Ecosystem

 Afro alpine areas between 3500 m and 4620 m

 Sub afro alpine areas between 3200 and 3500 m
 Ecosystem characterized
 Most conspicuous giant Lobelia, Lobelia rhynchopetalum
 Evergreen shrubs including heather, Erica arborea
 Perennial herbs such as Helichrysum species
 Conted…
 Endemic mammals ecosystem
 Walia Ibex

 Mountain Nyala
 Starck’s Hare
 Ethiopian Wolf
 Gelada Baboon
 Giant Mole Rat also a characteristic species
 199 species birds recorded
 Conted…
 Ethiopia largest extent afro alpine and sub afro alpine habitats
in Africa
 Highlands Ethiopia widely covered Afro alpine moorlands
and grasslands
 Original afro alpine and sub afro alpine natural communities
are now restricted scattered
 Not easily accessible areas, surrounded and isolated
agricultural areas
 Threats

 Increasing population pressure frequent encroachments by

man
 Resulted widespread destruction wildlife and their habitats
 Human pressure faunal and floral resources now risk
 Ethiopian Wolf, Golden Jackal and Walia Ibex endemic
ecosystem most threatened mammals
Figure 1. Afro alpine and Sub afro alpine Ecosystem, Senaiti Plateau, Bale
Mountains National Park
 Dry evergreen montane forest to grass land complex ecosystems

 Ecosystem complex system successions involving extensive

grasslands rich
 Legumes, shrubs and small to large-sized trees closed forest
canopy
 Occurring between (1600-) 1900-3300 m.
 Ecosystem covers much of highland areas and mountainous
chains of Ethiopia
 Conted…

 Oromia region (Shewa, Arsi, northern Bale and western Hararge)

 Amhara Region (Gojam, Welo, Gonder)

 Tigray Region (Tigray)

 SNNP region (Shewa, Sidamo and Gamo Gofa)

 Areas Dry Evergreen Afro montane forest canopies usually

dominated

 Tid/Gatira (Juniperus procera)

 Weira/Ejersa (Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata)

 Zigba/Birbirsa (Podocarpus falcatus)

 Conted…

 Natural woodlands and wooded grasslands plateau with

Acacia abyssinica
 Characteristic mammals dry evergreen montane forest and

grassland complex more or less similar Afro alpine

ecosystem
 Mountain Nyala considered rare globally threatened
 Threats
 Ethiopian population and represents a zone sedentary cereal-
mixed agriculture centuries
 Forests diminished human interference and replaced bush
lands most areas
 Agricultural
 Grazing land
 Increasing fuel wood
Figure 2. Dry Evergreen Montane Forest and Grassland complex, Gaysay
near Dinshu, Bale Mountains National Park
 Moist Evergreen Montane Forest Ecosystem

 Ecosystem characterized one or more closed strata evergreen

trees, reach a height 30 to 40 m
 Vegetation type ecosystem divided two
 One type traditionally referred Afro-montane rainforest
 Forests occur southwestern part Ethiopian Highlands
between 1500 and 2600-mm elevation
 Conted…

 Harenna Forest southern slopes Bale Mountains

 Forests characteristically mixture Zigba (Podocarpus
falcatus)
 Broadleaved species emergent trees canopy including
 Kerero (Pouteria (Aningeria) adolfi-friederici)
 Kerkha (mountain bamboo- Arundinaria alpina)
characteristic species
 Conted…
 Second type includes Transitional Rainforest
 Ethiopian Highlands, Wellega, Illubabor and Kefa
 Occurs between 500 and 1500 m elevation
 Characteristic species canopy includes Pouteria (Aningeria)
altissima, Anthocleista schweinfurthii
 Conted…

 Ecosystem rich floristic composition

 Importance reptiles, mammals and avian fauna very minimal
Larger mammals characteristic include
Blue Monkey
 De Brazza’s Monkey
Leopard
 Guereza
 Conted…
 State Forest Conservation and Development Department
1980's
 Designated 58 important forest areas National Forest Priority
Areas (NFPA's)
 Aim of designating NFPA's production, protection and
biological conservation services
 Except Menagesha Suba Forest, all Forests designated under
NFPAs are under Regional Governments
 Threats

 Human activities form timber extraction

 Coffee and Tea plantations
 Agricultural expansion
 Settlement
 Deliberate or accidental fire hazards
Figure 3. Moist Evergreen Montane Forest Ecosystem, Sheka,
Keffa
 Acacia-Comiphora Woodland Ecosystem

 Ecosystem characterized
 Drought resistant trees
 Shrubs, either deciduous or with small
 Evergreen leaves
 Occurring between 900 and 1900 m.
 Trees and shrubs almost complete stratum
 Species Grar/Lafto
 Conted…
 Characteristic mammals
 African Wild Ass (endemic)
 Grevy’s Zebra
 Black Rhinoceros globally threatened
 Bird species
 Only Awash National Park gazette
 All other conservation areas without proper legal recognition
 Ground cover rich sub-shrubs
 Threats
 Currently under strong environmental stress
 Extraction fuel wood and charcoal
 Woodland clearance for rain-fed agriculture and irrigation
 Expansion of exotic invasive species
 Combretum-Terminalia Woodland Ecosystem

 Ecosystem characterized
 Small to moderate-sized trees with fairly large deciduous
leaves
 Yetan Zaf
 Species of Weyba
 Solid-stemmed lowland bamboo
 Vegetation type occurs western escarpment Ethiopian Plateau
 Border region between Ethiopia and Eritrea western Kefa and
Omo Zone
 Conted…
 Dominant vegetation Benshangul -Gumuz and Gambella
 Occurs between 500 and 1900 m
 Vegetation ecosystem developed influence fire
 Soil erosion very high onset rains
 Characteristic birds
 Gambella National Park only protected area
 Threats: Indiscriminate fire
 Settlement of refugees
 Inappropriate agricultural practice
Figure 6. Combretum-Terminalia Woodland Ecosystem, Bewa Mountains, Benshangul-
Gumuz
 Lowland, Semi-evergreen Forest Ecosystem

 Ecosystem includes forests restricted Lowlands eastern

Gambella Region Abobo and Gog Weredas
 Occur between 450 and 650 m sandy soils

 Semi-deciduous, with a 15-20 m tall

 Characteristic mammal species

 Bush Elephant and Leopard are subjected serious threats and

birds
 Threats: Fires establish agriculture depletion Forest land

 Clearing road construction/building Alwero Dam enhanced

forest destruction
Figure 7. Lowland, Semi-evergreen Forest Ecosystem, Gog, Gambella
 Desert and Semi-desert Scrubland Ecosystem

 Characterized by highly drought tolerant species of Grar/Lafto

and Kerbe
 Occurs Afar Depression, Ogaden, around Lake Chew Bahir
and Omo Delta below an altitude 500 m.
 Semi-desert northern western and North eastern country
(Amhara, Tigray and Afar)
 Southern (Oromia and Southern Nations and Nationalities and
Peoples Region)
 South eastern and eastern (Somali)
 Conted…
 Northern Afar and north eastern Tigray predominantly desert
 Fragmentation and overgrazing rangeland affected wild animals
 Wild Ass critically endangered and appeared 1996 IUCN list
of threatened animals
 Threats: The semi-desert and scrub ecosystem
 Increased grazing, threatened by bush encroachment
 Failure to manage expansion of invasive exotic species
Figure 8. Desert and Semi-desert Scrubland Ecosystem, Dolo, Sidamo
 Aquatic Ecosystem
 Ecosystem both running (lotic) and standing (lentic) inland
water bodies
 Rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, wetlands and aquatic bodies
 Aquatic resources 180 fish species some 30 to 50 are endemic
 200 species of phytoplankton, including many important Blue
green algal species
 Aquatic mammals Hippopotamus, Nile Lechwe, Common
Waterbuck and Bush Elephant
 Habitat species of reptiles Nile crocodile
 Conted…
 Endemic fish species; for example Lake Tana is unique for its
Barbus flock
 Threats: The removal of vegetation cover increases erosion
and sediment in-outs into water bodies
 Farming of the catchments contributes to enhanced nutrients
and particulate runoff where grasslands are overgrazed or
fields are fertilized
 indirect influences such as removal of vegetation cover of
drainage basins for agricultural, urban, industrial, mining
 Conted…
 Decrease lakes’ water occurs result natural phenomena shortage
of rainfall and human phenomena number irrigation schemes
 Introductions of organic sewage and domestic wastes into water
bodies threats aquatic ecosystem
 It causes large increase microbial respiration, a decrease
dissolved oxygen
 Causes appearance of “sewage fungus” and disappearance macro
invertebrates
 Agricultural land with long-term drainage and cultivation reduce
diversity wetland habits; species replaced by non-wetland species
Figure 9. Wetlands, Benshangul-Gumuz
 Quiz 5%

• 1.list and explain two strategic plan (2 point )

• 2.list at least three key articles (1 point )
• 3.What is in situ conservation and ex situ(2 point )