Fundamentals o f Soil Science

Course Code: Sol 114

Unit I- Lecture 4

AGNIBHA SINHA
Assistant Professor
Dept. Soil Science & Agril.
Chemistry
School of
Agriculture
 Concept of Rocks and Minerals

Defination of Minerals

Concept
covered Classification of Minerals

Examples
 Minerals are naturally occurring solids with a
definite chemical composition and crystal
Minerals structure. “Solid substances composed of atoms
having an orderly and regular arrangement”

When molten magma

solidifies, different elements
present in them freely
arrange in accordance with
the attractive forces and
geometric form. Silica
tetrahedron is the
fundamental building blocks
for the formation of different
minerals. (SiO2). Different
silicate minerals are ortho
silicates, ino-silicates,
phyllosilicates and
tectosilicates. There are
nonsilicate minerals also.
These are different oxides,
carbonates, sulphates,
 Minerals

Primary Minerals/ Secondary

essential minerals Minerals/
accessory
minerals

original components formed from changes in primary

of rocks minerals and rocks
Example- Feldspar, Example- Clay Minerals, iron
mica oxides
Ferromagnesian Group.

Non-Ferromagnesian Group.
Physical properties of minerals
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Fracture/ cleavage
4. Hardness
5. Luster
6. Crystal form
7. Taste
8. Specific gravity
9. Magnetism
10. Effervescence (fizz)
11. Birefringence
12. Fluorescence
Color
• Denotes the natural colour of the mineral
• The most obvious, but least reliable.
• Calcite has more colours
• Sulfur and Pyrite have same colour
Streak
 Refers to the colour of the powder form of the mineral
When an unknown mineral is rubbed against a piece
of unglazed porcelain (streak plate) it produces a
colored line.
 Hematite - red
 Magnetite - Black
 Talc - white
Fracture and Cleavage
These terms describe the way a mineral breaks
Fracture is the nature of the surface produced
as a result of its breakage
 Conchoidal - curved surface
 Uneven - Uneven surface
 Hackly - Jagged surface
 Earthy - Like chalk
 Even - Smooth
Cleavage
Some minerals break along certain well defined
planes called cleavage planes.
o Gypsum - 1 set
o Calcite - 2 sets
o Flourite - 3 sets
Crystal form

Crystal structure is the result of regular grouping of

atoms that are homogeneous. A crystal is a polyhedral
form, which means it is a geometric solid. It has a
specific set of faces, corners and edges, which is
consistent with the geometric packing of the atoms
There are 6 basic crystal forms
1. Isometric
2. Tetragonal
3. Hexagonal
4. Orthorhombic
5. Monoclinic
6. Triclinic
Hardness
This is how resistant a mineral is to being scratched. We
use the Mohs scale to classify a given minerals hardness.
Try to scratch the unknown mineral with various items,
such as a fingernail (hardness of about 2.5), a coin (3), a
steel nail (5.5) and a steel file (7).
Specific Gravity
This characteristic relates to the minerals density. If the
mineral is heavy for its size, then it has a high specific gravity
Magnetism
Is the mineral magnetic (try using a compass), or is it
attracted by a magnet? This property is characteristic of
Magnetite.

Effervescence
When some minerals are exposed to acids, they begin
to fizz (calcite).
Birefringence
This is also known as double refraction. Birefringent
minerals split the light into two different rays which
gives the illusion of double vision in this Iceland Spar
Calcite
Fluorescence
Some minerals display the phenomenon of
photoluminescence. They "glow" when exposed to UV
light.
Opal and Fluorite.
 Ferro magnesium minerals

Pyroxenes and amphiboles:

 Pyroxenes consist of a single chain

(2 oxygen shared in each
tetrahedron)
 Amphiboles consist of a double
chains (alternately 2 and 3 oxygen
atoms shared successive
tetrahedral).
 Among the pyroxene group of
minerals augite is the most
important minerals in soils
 The amphibole group of minerals are
common in acidic rocks and it can
be represented by the isomorphous
series between tremolite actinolite
olivine and hornblende.
 Hornblende weathers fairly rapidly.
 Olivine (olive-green) minerals from
an isomorphous series between
foresterite (Mg2 SiO4) and fayalite
(Fe2SiO4).
 Pyroxenes are more basic in
character and therefore it weathers
Micas

 They are primarily originated from the parent rock from

which the soil is derived. Generally soils are inherited
from well-ordered and imperfectly ordered micas.
 Well-ordered micas are derived from sedimentary rocks.
The most common well ordered micas are muscovite,
paragonite, biotite and phlogopite (trioctahedral).
 The imperfectly ordered micas contain less potassium
and more water as compared to well-ordered micas and
this type of micas are most abundant in the clay fraction
of soils.
 Among the ordered micas, biotite weathers more rapidly
Non-ferromagnesium minerals
Feldspars:
 Feldspars are anhydrous aluminosilicates of K, Na and
Ca and occasionally of other large cations such as Ba.
 The feldspar structure consists of tetrahedral which are
attracted by sharing each oxygen atom between
neighboring tetrahedron.
 The tetrahedral contain mainly Silicon with sufficient Al
substitution.
 It belongs to the group of minerals that are light in
weight. There are two groups of feldspars: (i)
potassium feldspars (KAlSi3O8) include orthoclase,
microcline, adularia and sanidine. Orthoclase and
microcline are more common in the plutonic and
metamorphic rocks.
 The potassium feldspars occur commonly in the silts
and sands of soils and also abundant in clay-size, (ii)
plagioclase feldspars- a series consisting of a solid
solution of albite (NaAlSi3O8) high in sodium and
anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) high in calcium.
 Plagioclase weathers more rapidly than orthoclase.
Quartz:

 very densely packed and

occurs in a high degree of
purity.
 strongly resistant to
weathering as the structure
is densely packed,
electrically neutral and free
from any substitution.
 the most abundant mineral
next to feldspars.
Silicate Minerals:-

Silicate Mineral Class No of O2 Shared Examples

Nesosilicate/island
0 Olivine, Topaz, Kyanite
Silicate (SiO44-)

Sorosilicate (Si2O76-) 1 Epidote family

Cyclosilicate (Si3O96- or 3 membered ring-

Si6O1812-) [For cyclic 2 Benitoites
rings] 6 membered ring- Beryl
Inosilicate (Single
2 Pyroxene series- Augite
Chain) (SiO3-)
Inosilicate (Double Amphibole series-
2.5
Chain) (Si4O116-) Hornblende
Mica- Muscovite, Biotite
Phyllosilicate (Si2O52-) 3 Clay minerals- Kaolinite,
Vermiculite

Tectosilicate (SiO20) 4 Feldspars- Orthoclase

Nesosilicate Sorosilicate Cyclosilicate

Inosilicate (Single Chain)

 Inosilicate (Double
Chain)

Phyllosilicate Tectosilicate
ISOLATED SILICATES [Nesosilicates]

• silicon tetrahedra share no oxygen anions with other

tetrahedra, and so have an excess negative charge of 4-.
• In the mineral olivine, this is balanced by the insertion of a
pair of divalent cations in the crystal structure, either or both
of Mg2+ and Fe2+.
• The chemical formula for olivine is written (Mg,Fe)2SiO4, which
tells us that for every silicon, there are four oxygen and two
cations, either or both of Mg and Fe.
OLIVINE
These three
specimens are
of an igneous
rock
consisting
almost
exclusively of
crystals of
olivine that
are
approximately
Olivine
1mmexhibits its classic glassy, olive green appearance in these specimens, as
across.
well as its common granular [somewhat like sugar] habit. There is no cleavage,
only conchoidal fracture, so that there are no plane surfaces reflecting light.
SINGLE CHAIN SILICATES
[Inosilicates]
 In the single chain silicates, each silicon tetrahedron shares two
oxygen anions, one with one neighboring tetrahedron, and one with
another, to produce long, strongly bonded chains.
 Each shared oxygen accounts for only 1- rather than the usual 2-, so
that for each silicon tetrahedron, the excess negative charge is now
only 2-, which still requires insertion of cations in the crystal
structure.
 These cations are bonded to, and serve to link, the chains, but these
bonds are weaker than those within the chains.
Pyroxene [e.g. augite]
In these three views of two specimens, the upper face and left
side vertical face meet at right angles, a common
characteristic of the single chain silicates. Note how irregular
the faces are on the two images on the right, yet how these
small steps are parallel to each other. The hardness, around 5
½ to 6, white streak, and typical dark colour make this
otherwise very similar to amphibole, a double chain silicate.
The square cross-sections of pyroxene crystals distinguishes
them from amphiboles.
DOUBLE CHAIN SILICATES [Inosilicates]

 As with single chain silicates, chains are constructed

by sharing of two oxygen for each silicon tetrahedron.
The double chains are constructed by having every
second silicon along the chain share a third oxygen
with a silicon from the facing chain.
 The net result is that on average, each silicon shares 2
½ oxygen,
 so the excess negative charge per silicon is reduced
to 1 ½.
 Cations serve to balance charge and link the strongly
Amphibole [e.g. hornblende]

In the double chain silicates, the extra width of the double chain skews the
intersection angle between cleavage faces, so that they meet to form
hexagonal cross sections to the crystals, as highlighted by the yellow lines in
the right-hand image. In this case, we are sighting along the length of the
chains. Other major properties are as for pyroxene.
SHEET SILICATES [Phyllosilicates]
 In this group, each silicon tetrahedron shares three oxygen
anions with neighboring tetrahedra, so that the net negative
charge per silicon is now 1-.
 This produces a kind of hexagonal honeycomb sheet, in which
all tetrahedra point in the same direction.
 This enables these layers to bond with layers of cations at the
centers of octahedra with oxygen as the apices.
 There is great variety in the combinations that are possible.
 However, there is an asymmetry to the charge distribution
which leads to net surface charges on the sheets, which are
then weakly bonded to each other by cations.
 This leads to the characteristic property of this group – one
perfect cleavage, parallel to the sheets.
Biotite

As with all mica group minerals within the sheet silicates, biotite cleaves
readily to produce flexible cleavage flakes whose surface has significant
reflectance, such that small flakes or crystals within a rock typically glint. It is
soft as well, and not readily confused with anything else. You may rely on the
colour to be this consistent, almost black or very dark brown shade, to
distinguish from other micas, such as muscovite.
Muscovite
Soft, and with flexible, highly reflective cleavage flakes, the
mica group mineral muscovite is distinguished consistently and
reliably from the darker cousin biotite by its clear to silvery
color. Muscovite contains aluminum, whereas biotite has iron
and/or magnesium in the same site in the crystal structure,
which accounts for the consistent color difference.
Chlorite
Belonging to
a different
group of
sheet silicates
than the
micas,
chlorite has
brittle rather
than flexible
cleavage
flakes.
Chlorite is also soft and readily flakes along its perfect cleavage, and is highly
reflective as well. Its characteristic dark green color imparts a green tone to
the rocks which most typically contain it – low grade metamorphic rocks that
are called greenschists.
FRAMEWORK SILICATES
[Tectosilicates]
Finally, all four oxygen are shared, each one with a different
silicon tetrahedron, which eliminates the excess negative charge,
given the basic formula SiO2 (the two oxygen are in effect four ½
oxygen, each being shared). One might therefore expect the
framework silicates to be the simplest group to deal with, but
complexity is introduced in the feldspar group, as we shall soon
see.
Quartz
Among the most common rock-forming minerals, quartz is also
among the easiest to identify. With a hardness of 7, it is not
scratched by a knife blade, but ends up with a thin streak of
metal on its surface. Most commonly it has a somewhat dull,
grey glassy appearance. It has no cleavages to produce plane
reflecting surfaces when incorporated in rocks (see right
image), but rather exhibits conchoidal fracture. Its
characteristic habit is as hexagonal prismatic crystals (see left
view) with pyramid terminations, seen in the specimen under
the scale bar in the left image, and in the middle image.
Feldspar Group – Potassium Feldspar

In the feldspars, we see coupled ionic substitution, rather than

the simple substitution exhibited by olivine. By virtue of its size,
Al3+ fits between the oxygen anions of the tetrahedra in place of
Si4+. Of course, this introduces a positive charge deficiency.
Statistically, either one out of every four tetrahedra, or two out
of every four tetrahedra, may have a silicon cation replaced by
aluminum (any more than that cannot be accommodated by the
crystal structure). In the case of potassium feldspar, one out of
every four tetrahedra has aluminum, and the charge deficiency is
balanced by insertion of a potassium (K+) cation.
Potassium Feldspar
The most common variety of potassium feldspar is orthoclase,
number 6 on Mohs hardness scale. Although it is commonly a
salmon pink color, this is not a diagnostic feature (see
plagioclase feldspar images to confirm this point). It has two
cleavages that meet at right angles, to produce square edges
as seen in these specimens. Streak is white. This mineral may
have simple twinning, but never exhibits the multiple twinning
that plagioclase feldspar may show.
Potassium Feldspar

This specimen is included to emphasize the fact that one can not say with
confidence that potassium feldspar is pink, and plagioclase white, although
this is often the case. In the left-hand image, the upper face and lower left
faces are cleavages, and in the right-hand image, the upper face and shaded
lower right face are cleavages. Note again that cleavages tend to be expressed
in a somewhat discontinuous fashion.
Feldspar Group – Plagioclase
Feldspar
Explanation of the plagioclase feldspars carries on from
potassium feldspar. The substitution of one Al3+ for Si4+ could also
be balanced by Na+. This is albite, the sodium plagioclase
feldspar. If we substitute two Al for Si out of every four Si, the
charge deficiency of 2+ is balanced by Ca2+, and we have
anorthite. The ionic radii of Na+ and Ca2+ are almost identical, so
the two freely substitute, along with Al3+ for Si4+, to produce the
plagioclase feldspar solid solution series. One might expect there
to be free substitution between albite and potassium feldspar,
but because the ionic radius of potassium is approximately 40%
larger than that of sodium, such substitution is limited to
elevated temperatures.
Plagioclase
Feldspar
This mineral
has many
properties in
common with
potassium
feldspar,
which we
emphasize on
this slide.
The hardness is 6, colour is variable, including salmon pink as seen here, and
the streak is white. Two excellent cleavages meet at right angles (upper and
left-facing surfaces in the image above). However, plagioclase feldspar may
have multiple (or polysynthetic) twinning striations, as seen on the upper face
parallel to the red arrow.
Plagioclase Feldspar

This reoriented specimen exhibits the twinning striations more clearly,

parallel to the blue arrows. Resembling very fine scratches, they represent the
intersection between twin planes and the upper surface of the crystal, and
are flush with that surface. They are not seen on the faces marked with blue
stars, because they are parallel to those faces, but could be seen on the faces
highlighted by green arrows.
Plagioclase Feldspar

The same crystal yet again conveys the idea that the twinned crystal consists
of slices with alternating orientation of the crystal structure. As a result, some
slices catch the light in such a way as to reflect it, and others do not, showing
up salmon pink rather than being washed out. We stress that the striations are
an optical effect produced by the fact that crystal structure controls the
interaction of light with a specimen.
Plagioclase Feldspar

This specimen illustrates the variability in color exhibited by feldspars.

Twinning striations are visible on the upper surface, parallel to the red arrows.
Because the twin planes are parallel to the right side face in the right side
image, they could not be seen there, but hypothetically could be seen on the
lower, shaded face in that image. The irregularity of this fracture surface
makes this most unlikely in practice.
Plagioclase Feldspar

This white specimen, with twinning striations running parallel to the red
arrows, illustrates the fact that portions of the twinned crystal are not
necessarily all of the same thickness, although they tended to be nearly so in
the specimens in the earlier slides. Note the broad uniform band, almost 1 cm
wide, sandwiched between twins whose planes are less than 1 mm apart.
Formation of secondary minerals, Clay minerals & Amorphous minerals

The secondary minerals are formed at the Earth’s surface by

weathering of the preexisting primary minerals under variable
conditions of temperature and pressure. During weathering, water
accompanied by CO2, from the atmosphere plays an important role
in processes, such as hydrolysis, hydration and solution. As a result
the primary minerals are altered or decomposed.
Feldspar + water — clay mineral + cations + anions +
soluble silica
Because of weathering, many elements are released into solution; a
part of which may be used as a source of plant nutrients, a part
may be leased out into the groundwater; still another part together
with other constituents of the environment (like CO2, H2O) may
recombine to form secondary minerals.
SILICATES
- Clay minerals: hydrous aluminosilicates, with
layer structure similar to micas, e.g. illite,
montomorillonite, kaolinite, etc.
NON-SILICATES
--Oxides, hydroxides or oxyhydrates of Si, Al
and Fe
Haematite Fe O2 3

Goethite; Limonite FeO(OH)n H O 2

Gibbsite Al (OH)3,
Clay Minerals

Clay minerals in soils are formed from primary minerals due to weathering
processes. These clay minerals are of size <0.002 mm and are considered
to be the most reactive part of soil. Important soil properties like nutrient
and water holding capacity are controlled by clay minerals. These minerals
are layered silicates consisting of silica tetrahedron and aluminium
octahedron.
1) 1 silicon tetrahedron + 1 aluminium octahedron = 1:1 clay mineral
(Kaolinite)
2) 2: 1 non-expanding clay mineral
i. Black mica (Biotite)
ii. White mica (Muscovite)
iii. Weathered mica (illite)
3) 2: 1 expanding clay mineral
i. Partially expanding (Vermiculite)
Non-Silicates

Oxides, Hydroxides or Hydrous-oxides group

We have already seen that oxygen is present in great

abundance (46.7%) in the Earth’s crust. The oxide minerals are

found by the direct combination of elements (present in the

Earth’s crust) with oxygen.

The oxides are usually harder than any other mineral, except

the silicates. The most important soils-forming oxide minerals

are:

Haematite : Fe2O3

Limonite : Fe2O3 3H2O

Haematite, Fe2O3
It varies in colour from red to
blackish and has reddish
streak. It has a metallic luster
and hardness (H) of about 5.
Its presence in rocks is
indicative of quick chemical
change

Limonite or Bog Iron,

2Fe2O3,3H2O
It is hydrated ferric oxide,
yellow to brown in colour and
is of wide occurrence. It is the
final product of most iron
minerals and hence is
resistant any further change,
except for absorption of water.
Goethite, FeO(OH)nH2O
Most materials, called
limonite, are goethite with
some adsorbed water. It is
usually white but may pink
or grey in colour. Its
hardness is 5.3.

Gibbsite (Hydragillite),
Al2O3,H2O
It is the most common
aluminium compound in
soils. Its natural colour is
white. It is abundantly
observed in highly-
weathered soils of the
tropical environment,
supporting Laterites
Carbonate Group
The basic compounds, like Mg (OH)2, and Ca(OH) combine with CO2 or carbonic acid to
form carbonates as under:
Calcite, CaCO3
A white mineral, with hardness of 3, is widely distributed in sedimentary rocks, like
limestone and decomposes easily to calcium bicarbonate as:
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O --- Ca (HCO3)2 (soluble in water)
Dolomite, Ca Mg (CO3)2
Dolomite is less-readily decomposed than calcite; it is the chief source of Mg in soils.
Siderite, FeCO3
It is an alteration product of other iron-bearing minerals, having hardness of 4 and may
itself alter to hematite or limonite. It is an important mineral in waterlogged soils.
Sulphate Group
Sulphate is a complex group formed by the combination of 1 sulphur and 4 oxygen ions,
which further reacts with Ca to form calcium sulphate (anhydrite, CaSO 4) On hydration it
forms gypsum (CaSO42H2O).
Gypsum, CaSO4 2H2O
It is a common mineral in desert soils and in sedimentary rocks having a hardness of 2.
It is slightly soluble in water and gets most-easily leached. It precipitates as very fine,
powdery mycelium from ground waters rich in Ca and SO 4 ions (as observed in the
Mesopotamian Plain of Iraq where hyper aridic prevail). In India, it is used as an
amendment to reclaim sodic soils and also acts as a source of Ca and S for plants.
Under the hot, aridic climatic environments of Iraq, the presence of gypsum in high
amounts is a problem, as it causes civil structures to collapse and makes sink-holes in
soils, resulting in loss of irrigation water.
Phosphate Group
Apatite, Rock Phosphate
It is a primary source of phosphorus in soils. Its hardness is 5 in mho’s scale. It
decomposes readily under the influence of carbonic acid. It becomes immobile in
calcareous soils as it readily combines with clays, with clays, Fe-A1 hydrous oxides,
calcium carbonate to form rock phosphate. It also precipitates under acidic
environment, as Fe and/or A1- phosphate.