Discrete Mathematics

Lecture 7

Harper Langston
New York University
Summer 2016
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• TA/Office Hours, etc: Jianbo Sun
• Homework
 Disproofs, Counterexamples and
Algebraic Proofs
• Is is true that (A – B)  (B – C) = A – C?
(No via counterexample)
• Show that (A  B) – C = (A – C)  (B – C)
(Can do with an algebraic proof, slightly
different)
 Russell’s Paradox
• Set of all integers, set of all abstract ideas
• Consider S = {A, A is a set and A  A}
• Is S an element of S?
• Barber puzzle: a male barber shaves all those men who do
not shave themselves. Does the barber shave himself?
• Consider S = {A  U, A  A}. Is S  S?
• Godel: No way to rigorously prove that mathematics is
free of contradictions. (“This statement is not provable” is
true but not provable) (consistency of an axiomatic system
is not provable within that system)
 Halting Problem
• There is no computer algorithm that will
accept any algorithm X and data set D as
input and then will output “halts” or “loops
forever” to indicate whether X terminates in
a finite number of steps when X is run with
data set D.
• Proof is by contradiction
 Generic Functions
• A function f: X  Y is a relationship between
elements of X to elements of Y, when each element
from X is related to a unique element from Y
• X is called domain of f, range of f is a subset of Y
so that for each element y of this subset there exists
an element x from X such that y = f(x)
• Sample functions:
– f : R  R, f(x) = x2
– f : Z  Z, f(x) = x + 1
– f : Q  Z, f(x) = 2
 Generic Functions
• Arrow diagrams for functions
• Non-functions
• Equality of functions:
– f(x) = |x| and g(x) = sqrt(x2)
• Identity function
• Logarithmic function
 One-to-One Functions
• Function f : X  Y is called one-to-one
(injective) when for all elements x 1 and x2
from X if f(x1) = f(x2), then x1 = x2
• Determine whether the following functions
are one-to-one:
– f : R  R, f(x) = 4x – 1
– g : Z  Z, g(n) = n2
• Hash functions
 Onto Functions
• Function f : X  Y is called onto (surjective)
when given any element y from Y, there exists x
in X so that f(x) = y
• Determine whether the following functions are
onto:
– f : R  R, f(x) = 4x – 1
– f : Z  Z, g(n) = 4n – 1
• Bijection is one-to-one and onto
• Reversing strings function is bijective
 Inverse Functions
• If f : X  Y is a bijective function, then it
is possible to define an inverse function f -1:
Y  X so that f-1(y) = x whenever f(x) = y
• Find an inverse for the following functions:
– String-reverse function
– f : R  R, f(x) = 4x – 1
• Inverse function of a bijective function is a
bijective function itself
 Composition of Functions
• Let f : X  Y and g : Y  Z, let range of f be a
subset of the domain of g. The we can define a
composition of g o f : X  Z
• Let f,g : Z  Z, f(n) = n + 1, g(n) = n^2. Find f o g
and g o f. Are they equal?
• Composition with identity function
• Composition with an inverse function
• Composition of two one-to-one functions is one-to-
one
• Composition of two onto functions is onto
 Pigeonhole Principle
• If n pigeons fly into m pigeonholes and n > m, then at least
one hole must contain two or more pigeons
• A function from one finite set to a smaller finite set cannot be
one-to-one
• In a group of 13 people must there be at least two who have
birthday in the same month?
• A drawer contains 10 black and 10 white socks. How many
socks need to be picked to ensure that a pair is found?
• Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. If 5 integers are selected must
at least one pair have sum of 9?
 Pigeonhole Principle
• Generalized Pigeonhole Principle: For any function f : X  Y
acting on finite sets, if n(X) > k * N(Y), then there exists some
y from Y so that there are at least k + 1 distinct x’s so that f(x)
=y
• “If n pigeons fly into m pigeonholes, and, for some positive k,
m >k*m, then at least one pigeonhole contains k+1 or more
pigeons”
• In a group of 85 people at least 4 must have the same last
initial.
• There are 42 students who are to share 12 computers. Each
student uses exactly 1 computer and no computer is used by
more than 6 students. Show that at least 5 computers are used
by 3 or more students.
 Cardinality
• Cardinality refers to the size of the set
• Finite and infinite sets
• Two sets have the same cardinality when there is bijective
function associating them
• Cardinality is is reflexive, symmetric and transitive
• Countable sets: set of all integers, set of even numbers,
positive rationals (Cantor diagonalization)
• Set of real numbers between 0 and 1 has same cardinality
as set of all reals
• Computability of functions
 Algorithms
• Algorithm is step-by-step method for
performing some action
• Cost of statements execution
– Simple statements
– Conditional statements
– Iterative statements
 Division Algorithm
• Input: integers a and d
• Output: quotient q and remainder r
• Body:
r = a; q = 0;
while (r >= d)
r = r – d;
q = q + 1;
end while
 Greatest Common Divisor
• The greatest common divisor of two
integers a and b is another integer d with the
following two properties:
– d | a and d | b
– if c | a and c | b, then c  d
• Lemma 1: gcd(r, 0) = r
• Lemma 2: if a = b * q + r, then gcd(a, b) =
gcd(b, r)
 Euclidean Algorithm
• Input: integers a and b
• Output: greatest common divisor gcd
• Body:
r = b;
while (b > 0)
r = a mod b;
a = b;
b = r;
end while
gcd = a;
 Exercise
• Least common multiple: lcm
• Prove that for all positive integers a and b,
gcd(a, b) = lcm(a, b) iff a = b
 Correctness of Algorithms
• Assertions
– Pre-condition is a predicate describing initial state before
an algorithm is executed
– Post-condition is a predicate describing final state after an
algorithm is executed
• Loop guard
• Loop is defined as correct with respect to its pre- and
post- conditions, if whenever the algorithm variables
satisfy the pre-conditions and the loop is executed,
then the algorithm satisfies the post-conditions as
well
 Loop Invariant Theorem
• Let a while loop with guard G be given together with its
pre- and post- conditions. Let predicate I(n) describing
loop invariant be given. If the following 4 properties hold,
then the loop is correct:
– Basis Property: I(0) is true before the first iteration of the loop
– Inductive Property: If G and I(k) is true, then I(k + 1) is true
– Eventual Falsity of the Guard: After finite number of iterations, G
becomes false
– Correctness of the Post-condition: If N is the least number of
iterations after which G becomes false and I(N) is true, then post-
conditions are true as well
 Correctness of Some Algorithms
• Product Algorithm:
pre-conditions: m  0, i = 0, product = 0
while (i < m) {
product += x;
i++;
}
post-condition: product = m * x
Correctness of Some Algorithms
• Division Algorithm
pre-conditions: a  0, d > 0, r = a, q = 0
while (r  d) {
r -= d;
q++;
}
post-conditions: a = q * d + r, 0  r < d
Correctness of Some Algorithms
• Euclidean Algorithm
pre-conditions: a > b  0, r = b
while (b > 0) {
r = a mod b;
a = b;
b = r;
}
post-condition: a = gcd(a, b)
 Matrices
• Sum of two matrices A and B (of size mxn) – Ex.
• Product of mxk matrix A and kxn matrix B is a mxn
matrix C – Examples.
• Body:
for i := 1 to m
for i := 1 to n
c_ij := 0
for q := 1 to k
c_ij := c_ij + a_iq*b_qj
end
Return C
 Sequences
• Sequence is a set of (usually infinite number of) ordered
elements: a1, a2, …, an, …
• Each individual element ak is called a term, where k is called an
index
• Sequences can be computed using an explicit formula: ak = k * (k
+ 1) for k > 1
• Alternate sign sequences
• Finding an explicit formula given initial terms of the sequence: 1,
-1/4, 1/9, -1/16, 1/25, -1/36, …
• Sequence is (most often) represented in a computer program as a
single-dimensional array
 Sequence Operations
• Summation: , expanded form, limits
(lower, upper) of summation, dummy index
• Change of index inside summation
• Product:  , expanded form, limits (lower,
upper) of product, dummy index
• Factorial: n!, n! = n * (n – 1)!
 Sequences
• Geometric sequence:
a, ar, ar2, ar3, …, arn
• Arithmetic sequence:
a, a+d, a +2d, …, a+nd
• Sum of geometric sequence:
 ark
0->n

• Sum of arithmetic sequence:

 a+kd
0->n
 Review Mathematical Induction

• Principle of Mathematical Induction:

Let P(n) be a predicate that is defined for integers
n and let a be some integer. If the following two
premises are true:
P(a) is a true
k  a, P(k)  P(k + 1)
then the following conclusion is true as well
P(n) is true for all n  a
 Applications of Mathematical
Induction
• Show that 1 + 2 + … + n = n * (n + 1) / 2
(Prove on board)
• Sum of geometric series:
r0 + r1 + … + rn = (rn+1 – 1) / (r – 1)
(Prove on board)
 Examples that Can be Proved
with Mathematical Induction
• Show that 22n – 1 is divisible by 3 (in book)
• Show (on board) that for n > 2: 2n + 1 < 2n
• Show that xn – yn is divisible by x – y
• Show that n3 – n is divisible by 6 (similar to book
problem)
 Strong Mathematical Induction
• Utilization of predicates P(a), P(a + 1), …, P(n) to
show P(n + 1).
• Variation of normal M.I., but basis may contain
several proofs and in assumption, truth assumed
for all values through from base to k.
• Examples:
• Any integer greater than 1 is divisible by a prime
• Existence and Uniqueness of binary integer
representation (Read in book)
 Well-Ordering Principle
• Well-ordering principle for integers: a set of
integers that are bounded from below (all
elements are greater than a fixed integer)
contains a least element
• Example:
• Existence of quotient-remainder
representation of an integer n against
integer d