SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS

Unit II
HISTORY
SOLAR CELLS HISTORY
□ 1839: Photovoltaic Effect Is Discovered
□ French scientist Edmond Becquerel first discovered
the photovoltaic effect in 1839. This process occurs when light is
absorbed by a material and creates electrical voltage. Most modern
solar cells use silicon crystals to attain this effect.
□ 1873–1876: Selenium’s Photoconductivity Is Discovered
English electrical engineer Willoughby Smith discovered
the photoconductivity of selenium, meaning it becomes
electrically conductive when it absorbs light. Three years later,
William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day learned that
selenium could produce electricity from light without heat or
moving parts that could easily break down. This discovery proved
that solar power was easy to harvest and maintain, requiring fewer
parts than other energy sources — such as coal-fired plants
□ 1883: First Solar Cell Is Created
□ New York inventor Charles Fritts created the first solar
cell by coating selenium with a thin layer of gold. This
cell achieved an energy conversion rate of 1–2%.
Most modern solar cells work at an efficiency of 15–
20%.
□ 1887: The Photoelectric Effect Is Observed
□ German physicist Heinrich Hertz first observed
the photoelectric effect, where light is used to free
electrons from a solid surface (usually metal) to create
power. Contrary to expected results, Hertz found this
process produced more power when exposed to
ultraviolet light, rather than more intense visible light.
Albert Einstein later received the Nobel Prize for further
explaining the effect. Modern-day solar cells rely on
the photoelectric effect to convert sunlight into power.
□ 1953–1956: Silicon Solar Cells Are Produced
Commercially
□ Physicists at Bell Laboratories discovered that silicon is
more efficient than selenium, creating the first
practical solar cell — now 6% efficient. This discovery
led to solar cells capable of powering electrical
equipment. In 1956, Western Electric began selling
commercial licenses for its silicon PV technologies,
but the prohibitive costs of silicon solar cells keep
them from widespread market saturation.
□ 1958: Solar Energy Is Used In Space
□ After years of experiments to improve the efficiency and
commercialization of solar power, solar energy gained
support when the government used it to power space
exploration equipment. The first solar-powered
satellite, Vanguard 1, has traveled more than 197,000
revolutions around Earth in the 50 years it has been in
orbit. This application paved the way for more
research to decrease costs and increase production.
□ 1970s: Research Drives Costs Down
□ As oil prices rose in the 1970s, demand for solar
power increased. Exxon Corporation financed research
to create solar cells made from lower-grade silicon and
cheaper materials, pushing costs from $100 per watt to
only $20–$40 per watt. The federal government also
passed several solar-friendly bills and initiatives and
created the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) in 1977.
□ 1982: The First Solar Parks Are Created
□ Arco Solar built the first solar park — basically a solar power
plant — in Hesperia, California, in 1982. This park
generated 1 megawatt, or 1,000 kilowatts per hour, while
operating at full capacity. This could power a 100-kilowatt
lightbulb for 10 hours. In 1983, Arco Solar built a second
solar park in Carrizo Plains, California. At the time, it was
the largest collection of solar arrays in the world, containing
100,000 PV arrays that generated 5.2 megawatts at full
capacity. While these plants fell into disarray with oil’s
return to popularity, they demonstrated the potential for
commercial solar power production.
□ 1994-–1999: Photovoltaic Conversion Reaches New
Levels
□ In 1994, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
developed a new solar cell from gallium indium
phosphide and gallium arsenide that exceeded 30%
conversion efficiency. By the end of the century, the
laboratory created thin-film solar cells that
converted 32% of the sunlight it collected into
usable energy.
□ 2005: DIY Solar Panels Become Popular
□ As technology and efficiency of solar cells have
increased, residential solar power has become more
popular. DIY solar panels started hitting the market in
2005 and have become more prevalent with each
new year. Today, there are many ways to make your
own solar panels, from putting together a solar panel
kit to planning a solar array.
□ 2015: Flexible Printed Solar Panels Hit the Market
□ Solar cells as thin as paper can now be manufactured
using an industrial printer and made into products such
as roof tiles or shingles. They have 20% power
conversion efficiency, and a single strip can produce up
to 50 watts per square meter, making the cost of
residential solar energy lower than ever. This is also
great news for the 1.3 billion people in developing
countries, as the strips are flexible and inexpensive to
produce.
□ 2016: Sunless Solar Power Is Discovered
□ A research team from the University of California, Berkeley,
and the Australian National University discovered new
properties of nanomaterial. One of these properties is called
magnetic hyperbolic dispersion, which means the material
glows when heated. If combined with thermophotovoltaic
cells, it could turn heat into electricity without the need for
sunlight.
□ Solar power has come a long way in the past 200 years, from
observing the properties of light to finding new ways to
convert it into power. This technology shows no signs of
slowing down — if anything, it is advancing at an
unprecedented rate. Stay up to date on the latest solar news
and advances to decide if solar power is right for you
FUTURE VISION
□ All buildings will be built to combine energy-efficient
design and construction practices and renewable energy
technologies for a net-zero energy building. In effect, the
building will conserve enough and produce its own
energy supply to create a new generation of
cost-effective buildings that have zero net annual need
for non-renewable energy
□ Photovoltaics research and development will continue
intense interest in new materials, cell designs, and novel
approaches to solar material and product development.
It is a future where the clothes you wear and your mode
of transportation can produce power that is clean and
safe.
□ The price of photovoltaic power will be competitive
with traditional sources of electricity within 10 years.
□ Solar electricity will be used to electrolyze water,
producing hydrogen for fuel cells for transportation
and buildings.
India’s Solar Power

India’s total installed solar capacity has crossed 72 GW.

Moreover, a recent IEA report revealed that the nation is
expected to meet
18% of its energy requirement through solar by 2030.
Today, India ranks third in Asia and fourth in the world in
terms of its solar power generation. It currently accounts for
about 38% of the total renewable energy capacity. The
country’s largest solar power plants are located
in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
INDIA’S LARGEST SOLAR PLANT
□ Bhadla Solar Park
□ The Bhadla Solar Park is a solar power plant located
in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India. It covers an
area of 56 square kilometers and has a total
installed capacity of 2,245 megawatts (MW), making
it the largest solar park in the world as of 2023
Location: Bhadla, Jodhpur
Power Generation: 2245 MW
Area of ​the park: 14000 acres
It is the largest solar park in the world in terms of electricity
generation and the second-largest solar park in terms of area.
The average temperature in Bhadla is between 46 to 48
degrees centigrade. Bhadla is, a sandy, dry and dry area, spread
over about 45 square kilometers. The temperature makes it
perfect for solar energy generation.
The approximate amount of money spent to build this solar park
is about ₹10,000 crores.
This solar plant was developed in phases, with contributions by
many stockholders. The construction and maintenance work of
this solar park has been done by Vikas Company Limited (a
subsidiary company of Rajasthan Renewable Energy
Corporation Limited), Solar Energy Company (a Joint Venture
Company of the Government of Rajasthan and IL&FS Energy
Development Company), and Adani Renewable Energy Park
2. Pavagada Solar Park, Karnataka
Location: Palavalli, Karnataka
Output Power: 2050 MW
Area of ​the park: 13000 acres

This solar park is located in Karnataka. It supports many other

solar plants due to its highly supportive geographic position.
This solar park started generating energy in the year 2018.
Pavagada solar park was constructed with the help of Karnataka
Solar Park Development Corporation Limited (KSPDCL), a joint
venture company of Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI)
and Karnataka Renewable Energy (KREDL), and the National
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC).
In September 2023, the Karnataka Energy Department
announced plans to increase the capacity of Pavagada
Solar Park by 3 GW. Once this additional capacity is
commissioned, Pavagada Solar Park will become the largest
such facility in Asia.
Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park, Andhra Pradesh

Location: Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh

Output Power: 1000 MW
Area of ​the park: 5,932.32 acres
Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park is spread over an area of ​
5,932.32 acres in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh and is
currently on the list of the world’s largest solar parks.

The plant was set up within 2 years, in association with Andhra

Pradesh Solar Energy Corporation, Andhra Pradesh Generation
Corporation, and New and Renewable Energy Development
Corporation. The estimated amount of money spent to build this
solar park was about Rs 7,143 crore.
NP Kunta Ultra Mega Solar Park, Andhra
Pradesh

Location: Anantapuram, Andhra Pradesh

Output Power: 978.5 MW
Area of ​the park: 7,924.76 acres
This solar park is also known as Anantapuram Ultra Mega
Solar Park. It is spread over a total area of ​7,924.76
acres in Nambulpulkunta Mandal in the Anantapur district of
Andhra Pradesh state of India. Commissioned in May 2016, the
park is owned by Andhra Pradesh Solar Power Corporation
Private Limited, APSPCL.
Rewa Ultra Mega Solar, Madhya Pradesh

Location: Rewa, Madhya Pradesh

Output Power: 750 MW
Area of ​the park: 1590 acres
Rewa Ultra Mega Solar is constructed by Reva Ultra Mega
Solar Limited (RUMSL) which is a joint venture
between Madhya Pradesh Energy Development Corporation
Limited (MPUVNL) and Solar Energy Corporation of India
(SECI). This is the first and only solar project in India so far
funded by the Clean Technology Fund (CTF). It is also the
only solar power plant in India to receive concessional loans
Top 10 in the world
1. Bhadla Solar Park, India
Location: Rajasthan, India
Installed Capacity: 2245 MW
2. Huanghe Hydropower Hainan Solar
Park- China
Location: Qinghai province, China
Installed Capacity: 2200 MW

3. Pavagada Solar Park, India

Location: Karnataka, India
Installed Capacity: 2050 MW
4. Benban Solar Park, Egypt
Location: Aswan Governorate, Egypt
Installed Capacity: 1650 MW

5. Tengger Desert Solar Park, China

Location: Ningxia, China
Installed Capacity: 1547 MW
Solar plants in Madhya Pradesh
SOLAR IRRADIANCE
□ The amount and intensity of solar radiation that a
location or body of water receives depends on a variety
of factors. These factors include latitude, season, time of
day, cloud cover and altitude. Not all radiation emitted
from the sun reaches Earth’s surface. Much of it is
absorbed, reflected or scattered in the atmosphere. At the
surface, solar energy can be absorbed directly from the
sun, called direct radiation, or from light that has been
scattered as it enters the atmosphere, called indirect
radiation .

□
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
□ The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all types of
radiation . The part of the spectrum that reaches Earth
from the sun is between 100 nm and 1 mm. This band is
broken into three ranges: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared
radiation. Ultraviolet contains wavelengths between
100-400 nm. Visible light falls within the range of 400-
700 nm, and infrared light contains wavelengths from
700 nm to over 1 mm 1. In the visible light
spectrum, the colors are determined by length.
the Longerwavelengths appear red while
wavelengths are blue/violet as they range closershorter
to
the ultraviolet spectrum 5.
SOLAR RADIATION
DEFINITIONS
□ Solar irradiance is the amount of radiant flux on an
area, and is measured in watts per meter squared
(W/m²) .
□ Insolation is the amount of solar radiation that is
received by a planet. Some of this energy is absorbed or
reflected by the atmosphere, if there is one, and some
reaches the surface.
SHORT WAVE RADIATION
LONG WAVE RADIATION
SOLAR RADIATION
MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION
EQUIVALENT HOURS OF FULL SUN
SOLAR IRRADIANCE
□ Total solar irradiance is defined as the amount of radiant
energy emitted by sun over all wavelengths , not just
visible light , falling each second on 1 sq.m
perpendicular plane outside earth’s atmosphere.

□ G0 = 1367 w/m2 (in boundary of atmosphere)

STC
□ G = 1000 W/m2
□ Temp = 25 deg cen
□ Airmass= 1.5
EARTH CENTRIC VIEW POINT
IF POLAR AXIS IS VERTICAL IN PLACE OF 23.5
DEGREE TILT
DECLINATION ANGLE
EMPERICAL FORMULA
ALTITUDE ANGLE

where L is the latitude of the site.

PANEL TILT ANGLE
QUESTION
□ Find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing
photovoltaic module in Tucson (latitude 32.1◦) at solar
noon on March 1.

□ Solution : March 1 is the sixtieth day of the year so the

solar declination:
□ altitude angle of the sun equal
to

□ The tilt angle that would make the sun’s rays

perpendicular to the module at noon would therefore
be
HOW SOLAR CELL WORKS
□ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UJ8XW9AgUrw
SOLAR CELL WORKING
□ A solar cell is made of two types of semiconductors, called p-type and n-type
silicon. The p-type silicon is produced by adding atoms—such as boron or
gallium—that have one less electron in their outer energy level than does silicon.
Because boron has one less electron than is required to form the bonds with the
surrounding silicon atoms, an electron vacancy or “hole” is created.
□ The n-type silicon is made by including atoms that have one more electron in
their outer level than does silicon, such as phosphorus. Phosphorus has five
electrons in its outer energy level, not four. It bonds with its silicon neighbor
atoms, but one electron is not involved in bonding. Instead, it is free to move
inside the silicon structure.
□ A solar cell consists of a layer of p-type silicon placed next to a layer of n-type
silicon (Fig. 1). In the n-type layer, there is an excess of electrons, and in the p-
type layer, there is an excess of positively charged holes (which are vacancies due
to the lack of valence electrons). Near the junction of the two layers, the electrons
on one side of the junction (n-type layer) move into the holes on the other side of
the junction (p-type layer). This creates an area around the junction, called the
depletion zone, in which the electrons fill the holes
□ When all the holes are filled with electrons in the depletion zone,
the p-type side of the depletion zone (where holes were initially
present) now contains negatively charged ions, and the n-type side
of the depletion zone (where electrons were present) now contains
positively charged ions. The presence of these oppositely charged
ions creates an internal electric field that prevents electrons in the
n-type layer to fill holes in the p-type layer.
□ When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons in the silicon are
ejected, which results in the formation of “holes”—the vacancies
left behind by the escaping electrons. If this happens in the electric
field, the field will move electrons to the n-type layer and holes to
the p-type layer. If you connect the n-type and p-type layers with a
metallic wire, the electrons will travel from the n-type layer to the
p-type layer by crossing the depletion zone and then go through the
external wire back of the n-type layer, creating a flow of
electricity.
□ A layer of glass is placed at the top surface of the device in
order to gather maximum incident radiation. Also, metallic
fingers are provided at the top surface of the structure. Here,
we have used silver fingers. As they are good conductors and
absorbs the released electrons easily in order to provide
proper conduction.
□ Now, the question arises why we have placed the silver
fingers at some distance with the other?
□ The answer is that if we place a layer of metal at the top
surface then it does not allow the penetration of radiation to
the depletion region. So, it is placed in such a way that
light rays can easily reach the junction region.
PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
□ The collection of light-generated carriers does not by
itself give rise to power generation. In order to generate
power, a voltage must be generated as well as a current.
Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a process known
as the "photovoltaic effect". The collection of
light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a
movement of electrons to the n-type side and holes to
the p-type side of the junction. Under short circuit
conditions, there is no build up of charge, as the carriers
exit the device as light-generated current.
□ However, if the light-generated carriers are prevented from leaving the
solar cell, then the collection of light-generated carriers causes an
increase in the number of electrons on the n-type side of the p-n junction
and a similar increase in holes in the p-type material. This separation of
charge creates an electric field at the junction which is in opposition to
that already existing at the junction, thereby reducing the net electric
field. Since the electric field represents a barrier to the flow of the
forward bias diffusion current, the reduction of the electric field increases
the diffusion current. A new equilibrium is reached in which a voltage
exists across the p-n junction. The current from the solar cell is the
difference between IL and the forward bias current. Under open circuit
conditions, the forward bias of the junction increases to a point where the
light-generated current is exactly balanced by the forward bias diffusion
current, and the net current is zero. The voltage required to cause these
two currents to balance is called the "open-circuit voltage". The following
animation shows the carrier flows at short-circuit and open-circuit
conditions.
□ https://www.pveducation.org/sites/default/files/PVCDR
OM/Solar-Cell-Operation/Animations/pv-effect/pv-effec

t_HTML5.html
□ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_q6LRgKpTw
Working Mechanism
IV CHARACTERISTICS OF PV CELL
□ https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operati on/iv-curve
IV characteristics of solar cell
IV CHARACTERISTICS OF PV CELL

Simple Diode Circuit acting as Sink

IV CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE
FOR ACTING AS SOURCE (PV)
IDEAL SOLAR CELL
IDEAL SOLAR CELL IV CHARATERISTICS
FACTORS AFFECTING SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
□ The short-circuit current depends on a number of factors
which are described below:
□ the area of the solar cell. To remove the dependence of the
solar cell area, it is more common to list the short-circuit
current density (J sc in mA/cm2) rather than the short-circuit
current;
□ the number of photons (i.e., the power of the incident light
source).
□ the spectrum of the incident light. For most solar cell
measurement, the spectrum is standardised to the AM1.5
spectrum;
□ the optical properties (absorption and reflection) of the solar
cell
□ the collection probability of the solar cell, which depends
chiefly on the surface passivation and the minority carrier
lifetime in the base.
CHARACTERISTIC RESISTANCE
□ The characteristic resistance of a solar cell is the cell's
output resistance at its maximum power point. If the
resistance of the load is equal to the characteristic
resistance of the solar cell, then the maximum power is
transferred to the load, and the solar cell operates at its
maximum power point. It is a useful parameter in solar
cell analysis, particularly when examining the impact of
parasitic loss mechanisms. The characteristic resistance
is shown in the figure below.
Rch = Vmp / Imp = Voc / Isc
EFFECT OF PARASITIC RESISTANCES

□ Resistive effects in solar cells reduce the efficiency of

the solar cell by dissipating power in the resistances. The
most common parasitic resistances are series resistance
and shunt resistance. The inclusion of the series and
shunt resistance on the solar cell model is shown in the
figure below.
SERIES RESISTANCE

□ Series resistance in a solar cell has three causes: firstly,

the movement of current through the emitter and base of
the solar cell; secondly, the contact resistance between
the metal contact and the silicon; and finally the
resistance of the top and rear metal contacts. The main
impact of series resistance is to reduce the fill factor,
although excessively high values may also reduce the
short-circuit current.
Series resistance does not affect the solar cell at open-circuit voltage
since the overall current flow through the solar cell, and therefore
through the series resistance is zero. However, near the open-circuit
voltage, the IV curve is strongly affected by the series resistance.
□ https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operati on/series-
resistance
SHUNT RESISTANCE

□ Significant power losses caused by the presence of a shunt

resistance, RSH, are typically due to manufacturing defects,
rather than poor solar cell design. Low shunt resistance
causes power losses in solar cells by providing an alternate
current path for the light-generated current. Such a diversion
reduces the amount of current flowing through the solar cell
junction and reduces the voltage from the solar cell. The
effect of a shunt resistance is particularly severe at low light
levels, since there will be less light-generated current. The
loss of this current to the shunt therefore has a larger impact.
In addition, at lower voltages where the effective resistance of
the solar cell is high, the impact of a resistance in parallel is
large.
(RP = RSH) SHUNT RESISTANCE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF SOLAR CELL
IMPACT OF BOTH SERIES AND SHUNT RESISTANCE
IMPACT OF BOTH SERIES AND SHUNT RESISTANCE
□ https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operati on/shunt-
resistance
PV SOLAR CELL SYMBOL
FILL FACTOR
□ The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are
the maximum current and voltage respectively from a
solar cell. However, at both of these operating points, the
power from the solar cell is zero. The "fill factor", more
commonly known by its abbreviation "FF", is a
parameter which, in conjunction with Voc and Isc,
determines the maximum power from a solar cell. The
FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc so that:
QUESTION
□ Consider a 100-cm2 photovoltaic cell with reverse
saturation current I0 = 10−12 A/cm2. In full sun,
it produces a short-circuit current of 40 mA/cm2at 25◦C.
Find the open-circuit voltage at full sun and again for
50% sunlight. Plot the results.
FROM CELLS TO MODULES TO
ARRAYS
SERIES CONNECTION OF CELL
UNDER STC
□ If all the solar cells in a module have identical electrical
characteristics, and they all experience the same
insolation and temperature, then all the cells will be
operating at exactly the same current and voltage. In this
case, the IV curve of the PV module has the same shape
as that of the individual cells, except that the voltage
and current are increased. The equation for the circuit
becomes:
where:
N is the number of cells in series;
M is the number of cells in
parallel;
IT is the total current from the circuit;
VT is the total voltage from the circuit;
I0 is the saturation current from a single solar cell;
IL is the short-circuit current from a ingle solar cell;
n is the ideality factor of a single solar cell;
and q, k, and T are constants
IV CURVE
□ The overall IV curve of a set of identical connected
solar cells is shown below. The total current is simply
the current of an individual cell multiplied by the
number of cells in parallel. Such that: ISC total = ISC ×
M. The total voltage is the voltage of an individual cell
multiplied but the number of cells in series. Such that:
□
I-V curve for N cells in series x M cells in parallel.
SERIES CONNECTION
SERIES CONNECTION
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION
PART B SOLUTION
MISMATCH FOR CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE MISMATCH FOR CELLS
CONNECTED IN SERIES

cell 2 has a lower output voltage than cell 1.

 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT MISMATCH FOR CELLS
CONNECTED IN SERIES

Current mismatch for two cells in series can be quite serious and quite common.
The Isc of the combination is limited to the Isc of the lowest cell.
SHADING
IMPACT OF SHADING
□ https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules-and-arra ys/shading
HOT SPOT HEATING

□ Hot-spot heating occurs when there is one low current

solar cell in a string of at least several high short-circuit
current solar cells, as shown in the figure below.
HOT SPOT EFFECT
EXAMPLE
BYPASS DIODES
BLOCKING DIODES

□ Bypass diodes help current go around a shaded or

malfunctioning module within a string. This not only
improves the string performance, but also prevents hot
spots from developing in individual shaded cells. When
strings of modules are wired in parallel, a similar
problem may arise when one of the strings is not
performing well. Instead of supplying current to the
array, a malfunctioning or shaded string can withdraw
current from the rest of the array. By placing blocking
diodes (also called isolation diodes) at the top of each
string as shown , the reverse current drawn by a shaded
string can be prevented.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
IMPACTS OF TEMPERATURE AND
INSOLATION ON I–V CURVES

The NOCT is cell temperature in a module when ambient is 20◦C,

solar irradiation is 0.8 kW/m2, and windspeed is 1 m/s.
Tcell is cell temperature (◦C), Tamb is ambient temperature, and
S is solar
insolation (kW/m2).
During Ton time (inductor charging)
During Toff (inductor discharging)
Current and voltage across Inductor
Relation between Ro and RT :
Range limitation for Boost converter (never
operate at peak power)
Buck Converter
During Ton:
During Toff:
INPUT IMPEDANCE OF BUCK CONVERTER
(Range limitation because of load line)
Input impedance of Buck Boost converter
During Ton:
During Toff:
RT and RO relation in Buck-Boost converter:
IMPEDANCE CONTROL METHODS FOR MPPT
REFERENCE CELL METHOD
REFERENCE CELL – CURRENT SCALING METHOD
VOLTAGE SAMPLING METHOD
CURRENT SAMPLING
POWER SLOPE METHOD
HILL CLIMBING METHOD
TOGGLE EFFECT
IF PBASE IS ALSO MOVING SLOWLY
PBASE MOVEMENT AND TOGGLE
POWER HILL REGION
REFERENCE
□ https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/108/117108141/