Energy from Biomass

Dr. Bimal Das

Introduction:

Biomass
 The energy obtained from organic matter, derived from biological
organisms (Plants and animals) is known as biomass energy.
 Animals feed on plants, and plants grow through the photosynthesis
process using solar energy.
 Thus, photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the generation
of biomass energy.
 A small portion of the solar radiation is captured and stored in the plants
during photosynthesis process.
 Therefore, it is an indirect form of solar into biomass energy is
estimated to be 0.5 – 1.0%.
 To use biomass energy, the initial biomass may be transformed by
chemical or biological processes to produce intermediate bio-fuels such
as methane, producer gas, ethanol and charcoal etc.
 It is estimated that the biomass, which is 90% in trees, is equivalent to the proven current extractable
fossil fuels reserves in the world.
 The dry matter mass of biological material cycling in biosphere is about 250 x 109 tons/y. The
associated energy bound in photosynthesis
 is 2 x 1021 J/y (0.7 x 1014 W of power).
Biomass mainly in the form of wood, is mankind‘s oldest form of energy. It has traditionally been used
both in domestic as well as industrial activities, basically by direct combustion. As industrial activities
increased, the growing demand for energy depleted the biomass natural reserves. The development of new,
more concentrated and more convenient sources of energy has led to its replacement to a large extent by
other sources. Though biomass energy share in primary energy supply for the industrialized countries is
not more than 3%, a number of developing countries still use a substantial amount of it, mostly in the form
of non-commercial energy.
Combustion
Combustion is a process whereby the total or partial oxidation of carbon and hydrogen converts the chemical energy of
biomass into heat.

This complex chemical reaction can be briefly described as follows:

Burning fuel = Products from reaction + heat

 During the combustion process, organic matter decomposes in phases, i.e. drying, pyrolysis/gasification,
ignition of volatile substances and charcoal combustion.
 Generally speaking, these phases correspond to two reaction times: release of volatile substances and
respective combustion, followed by charcoal combustion.
 Wood, agricultural residues, wood pulping liquor, municipal solid waste (MSW) and refuse derived fuel
are examples of feed stocks for combustion.
 Combustion requires high temperatures for ignition, sufficient turbulence to mix all of the components
with the oxidant, and time to complete all of the oxidation reactions.
 The moisture content of the feedstock should be low and pre-drying may be necessary in some cases.
 Combustion
 Biomass combustion starts by heating and drying the feedstock.
 After all of the moisture has been removed, temperature rises for pyrolysis to occur in the absence of
oxygen.

 The major products are hydrogen, CO, CO2, CH4 and other hydrocarbons.
 In the end, char and volatile gases are formed and they continue to react independently.

 The volatile gases need oxygen in order to achieve a complete

flame combustion.
 Mostly CO2 and H2O result from complete combustion.
 When combusting biomass in a furnace, hot gases are released.
They contain about 85% of the fuel‟s potential energy. The heat can
be used either directly or indirectly through a heat exchanger, in the
form of hot air or water. Boiler used for biomass combusting
transfers the produced heat into steam. The steam can be used for
producing electricity, mechanical energy or heat.
Pyrolysis
 In pyrolysis, biomass is heated in the absence of air.
 The process results liquid, solid and gaseous fractions, mainly gases, bio-oil and char.
 The gases and the bio-oil are from the volatile fraction of biomass, while the char is
mostly the fixed carbon component.
Pyrolysis

 In the first step, temperature is increased to start the primary pyrolysis reactions. As a
result, volatiles are released and char is formed. Finally, after various reactions,
pyrolysis gas is formed.
 The main product of slow pyrolysis, a thousands of years old process, is char or
charcoal.
 In slow pyrolysis biomass is heated to around 500 degrees for 5 to 30min.
 Fast pyrolysis results mainly in bio-oil. The biomass is heated in the absence of
oxygen and the residence time is 0, 5 to 5s.
 Vapours, aerosols and char are generated through decomposition. After cooling, bio-
oil is formed. The remaining non condensable gases can be used as a source of energy
for the pyrolysis reactor.
 Calculated by weight, fast pyrolysis results in 60%-75% liquid bio-oil, 15%-25%
solid char, and 10%-20% non-condensable gases.
Gasification

 Gasification is a process whereby organic matter

decomposes through thermal reactions, in the
presence of stoichiometric amounts of oxidising
agents.
 The process generates a combustible gas mix,
essentially composed of carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, steam and,
though in smaller proportions, other heavier
hydrocarbons and tars.
 The process is aimed at converting the energy
potential of a solid fuel into a gas product, whose
energy content the form of chemical energy with
the capacity to generate work.
Gasification

Gasification is carried out in two steps.

 First, the biomass is heated to around 600 degrees. The volatile components, such as
hydrocarbon gases, hydrogen, CO, CO2, H2O and tar, vaporize by various reactions.
The remaining by-products are char and ash. For this first endothermic step, oxygen
is not required.
 In the second step, char is gasified by reactions with oxygen, steam and hydrogen in
high temperatures. The endothermic reactions require heat, which is applied by
combusting some of the unburned char. The main products of gasification are
synthesis gas, char and tars. The content depends on the feedstock, oxidizing agent
and the conditions of the process. The gas mainly consists of CO, CO4, H2O, CH4
and other hydrocarbons. The synthesis gas can be utilized for heating or electricity
production. It can also be used for the production of ethanol, diesel and chemical
feed stocks.
Main advantages of biomass energy are:
i. It is a renewable source.
ii. The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
iii. It is an indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange.
iv. The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually
lower than those from fossil fuels.
Commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problems of waste
disposal in other industries, particularly municipal solid waste in urban
centers.
vi. The nitrogen rich bio-digested slurry and sludge from biogas plant
serves as a very good soil conditioner and improves the fertility of the
Main disadvantages are:

i. It is a dispersed and land intensive source.

ii. It is often of low energy density.
iii. It is also labour intensive, and the cost of collecting large quantities
for commercial application is significant.

Most current commercial applications of biomass energy use material

that has been collected for other reasons, such as timber and food
processing residues and urban waste.
Biogas:
Biomass is converted to biogas by the process of digestion or
fermentation in the presence of micro-organisms. This biogas
mainly contains methane which is a good combustible gas.
Biogas consists of 50-55% of methane, 30-35% of CO2 and

remaining waste gases like H2, N2, H2S etc. since it contains a
hydrocarbon gas it is a very good fuel and hence can be used in IC
engines. It is a slow burning gas with calorific value of 5000-5500
Kcal/kg. the raw material used to generate this are algae, crop
residue, garbage, kitchen waste, paper waste, waste from sugar
cane refinery, water hyacinth etc. apart from the above mentioned
raw materials excreta of cattle, piggery waste and poultry
droppings are also used as raw materials.
Biogas is generated by fermentation or digestion of organic matter in
the
presence of aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms. Fermentation is
the
process of breaking down the complex organic structure of the
biomass to simple structures by the action of micro-organisms either
in the presence of O2 or in the absence of O2. The container in which
the digestion takes place is known as the digester.
Advantages

The initial investment is low for the construction of biogas plant.

The technology is very suitable for rural areas. Biogas is locally
generated and can be easily distributed for domestic use. Biogas
reduces the rural poor from dependence on traditional fuel sources,
which lead to deforestation.

The use of biogas in village helps in improving the sanitary condition

and
checks environmental pollution. The by-products like nitrogen rich
manure can be used with advantage. Biogas reduces the drudgery of
women and lowers incidence of eye and lung diseases.
The digestion takes place in the following steps
i)Enzymatic hydrolysis ii) Acid formation iii) Methane formation.

i) Enzymatic hydrolysis: In this step the complex organic matter like

starch, protein, fat, carbohydrates etc are broken down to simple
structures using anaerobic micro-organisms.

ii) Acid formation: In this step the simple structures formed in the
enzymatic hydrolysis step are further reacted by anaerobic and
facultative microorganisms (which thrive in both the presence and
absence of oxygen) to generate acids.

iii) Methane formation: In this step the organic acids formed are
further
converted to methane and CO2 by anaerobic micro-organisms
(anaerobes).
Factors affecting Biogas
generation:

1) PH value
2) Temperature
3) Total solid content
4) Load rating
5) Seeding
6) Uniform feeding
7) Dia to depth ratio
8) Carbon to nitrogen ratio
9) Nutrient
10) Mixing
11) Retention time
12) Type of feedstock
13) Toxicity
1) PH value:

It is an index of hydrogen ion concentration in the mixture which also

predicts acidity or alkalinity of the mixture. For effective gas generation
the required PH value is 6.5 to 7.6. If this value decreases to 4-6, the
mixture becomes acidic and if the value becomes 9-10 then it becomes
alkaline. Both for acidic and alkaline conditions the methane forming
bacteria becomes inactive and the gas generation is reduced. Thus for
effective gas generation the required PH value is 6.5-7.5.
2) Temperature:
The effect of temp on gas generation is as shown in
graph. The two curves represent two types of bacteria
which are sensitive to two different temp levels.
Mesophilic type of bacteria will effectively generate gas
at a temp of about 35º C.
Thermophilic type of bacteria will generate gas
effectively at a temp of about 55º C. As the temperature
decreases or increases from the above values the period
of gas generation will be increased. Since it is easy to
maintain a temp of 35º C, it is advisable to select
mesophilic type of bacteria for digestion.
3) Total solid content:

The raw material added to the digester contains both solid and liquid
in the ratio of 20:80 by weight. From the experience it is found that
the gas generation is improved by maintaining the solid content of the
mixture at about 8 to 10% by weight. This is done by adding water to
the mixture.

4) Loading rate:

It is the addition of the raw material to the digester/day/unit volume.

The effective load rating is found to be 0.5 to 1.6 kg of solid
material/day/m3.
5) Seeding:
During digestion the methane forming bacteria are consumed rapidly
and their number will decrease affecting the gas generation. In order
to maintain the quantity of methane forming bacteria, digested slurry
from
the previous batch is added to the digestor. The digested slurry is rich
in
methane forming bacteria and the process is known as seeding.

6) Uniform feeding:
this is one of the prerequisites of good digestion. The digester must be
fed at the same time every day with a balanced feed of the same
quality and quantity.
7) Dia to depth ratio:

from the experiments it is seen that the gas generation is improved by

maintaining a dia to depth ratio of 0.66 to 1. This provides uniform
temp distribution throughout the digester resulting in increased gas
generation.

8) Carbon to nitrogen ratio:

The bacteria in the digester utilize carbon for energy generation (as
food) while nitrogen is used for cell building. Hence a carbon to
nitrogen ratio of 30:1 is maintained for effective gas generation. If the
ratio is not maintained the availability of carbon and nitrogen will vary
resulting in reduced gas generation.
9) Nutrients:

The nutrients required by the bacteria for food digestion are hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, phosphorous and sulphur. Of these nitrogen
and phosphorous have to be provided externally while the others are
contained in the raw material itself. Nitrogen is provided by adding
‗leguminous plants‘ (plants with seeds enclosed in casings, eg: Maize)
which are rich in nitrogen content. Phosphorous is provided by adding
‗night soil‘(soil mixed with excreta of animals and humans) to the
digester.
10) Mixing:

Since bacteria in the digester have very limited reach to their food it is
necessary that the slurry is properly mixed and the bacteria get their
food supply. It is found that the slight mixing improves the digestion
and a violent mixing retards the digestion.

11) Retention time:

It is the time period required for the gas generation. It completely

depends on the type of the raw materials used. Eg: Night soil requires
30 days, pig dump and poultry droppings require 20 days while cow
dung and other kitchen waste requires 50 days of retention time.
12) Type of feed stock:
The usual feed stock used are cow dung, human excreta, poultry
dropping, pig dump, kitchen waste etc. To obtain an efficient digestion
these feed stocks are in some proportions, Predigested and finally
chopping will be helpful for fibrous type of raw materials.

13) Toxicity:
If the digester is left with the digested slurry it results in toxicity which
in turn reduces the gas generation. Hence the digested slurry should be
removed after the gas is generated.

14) Pressure:
It is found that the gas generation is increased with the decrease in the
pressure of the digester.
Biochemical reactions in anaerobic digestion:

There are four key biological and chemical stages of anaerobic

digestion:
Hydrolysis
Acido genesis
Aceto genesis
Methano genesis.
 Hydrolysis or Liquefaction
 Biomass is normally comprised of large organic polymers proteins, fats and
carbohydrates.
 These are broken down into smaller molecules such as amino acids, fatty acids, and
simple sugars. It is the essential first step in anaerobic fermentation; fermentative
bacteria hydrolyze the complex organic matter into soluble molecules.
 Some of the products of hydrolysis, including hydrogen and acetate may be used by
methanogens later in the anaerobic digestion process.
 Majority of the molecules, which are still relatively large, must be further broken
down in the process of acidogenesis so that they may be used to create methane.
 Acidogenesis
 Acidogenesis is the next step of anaerobic digestion where acidogenic
microorganisms further break down the biomass and organic products after
hydrolysis.
 These fermentative bacteria produce an acidic environment in the digestive tank
while creating ammonia, H2, CO2, H2S, shorter volatile fatty acids and organic
acids, as well as trace amounts of other byproducts. The principal acids produced
are acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid etc.
Acetogenesis

In general, acetogenesis is the creation of acetate, a derivative of acetic acid, from

carbon and energy sources by acetogens. These microorganisms catabolize many of
the products created in acidogenesis into acetic acid, CO2 and H2. Acetogens break
down the biomass to a point to which methanogens can utilize much of the remaining
material to create methane.
Methane Production
• Methanogenesis
• In this process, acetic acid, H2, CO2, are converted into CH4.
• Methane-producing bacteria have strict PH requirement and low adaptability to
temperature.
Methanogenesis constitutes the final stage of anaerobic digestion in which methanogens
create methane from the final products of acetogenesis as well as from some of the
intermediate products from hydrolysis and acidogenesis. There are two general pathways
involving the use of acetic acid and carbon dioxide, the two main products of the first
three steps of anaerobic digestion, to create methane in methanogenesis:
CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2H2O
CH3COOH → CH4 + CO2
While CO2 can be converted into methane and water through the reaction, the main
mechanism to create methane in methanogenesis is the path involving acetic acid. This
stage leads to generation of methane and CO2, the two main products of anaerobic
digestion.
Types of Biogas Reactors

There are number designs but two types of biogas reactors are popular:

Floating-drum plants
Fixed-dome plants.

The main design elements of small-scale biogas reactors common to both types are:
a digesting chamber (airtight vessel) provided with an inlet and outlet, an airtight
biogas collection (e.g. upper part of the reactor) and an expansion chamber.
Optionally, there are connections from the toilet and a grinder/mixture for the kitchen
and garden wastes.
Fixed-dome Reactors
 A fixed-dome plant consists of a fixed digester combined with non-movable gas holder,
placed on top of the digester or gas collected in the space in upper part of digester.

 When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation tank. Gas
pressure increases with the volume of gas generated and the height difference between
the slurry level in the digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank.
 The digesting tank is constructed underground that protects it from physical damage
and saving space. While the underground digester is protected from low temperatures
at night and during cold seasons, sunshine and warm seasons take longer to heat up the
digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in the digester positively influence
the bacteriological processes.
The construction of fixed dome plants is labor-intensive, thus creating local
employment. Fixed-dome plants are not easy to build. They should only be built
where construction can be supervised by experienced biogas technicians. Otherwise
plants may not be gas-tight (porosity and cracks).

The cost of a fixed-dome biogas plants is relatively low. The plant is simple as there
are no moving parts and also no rusting steel parts and hence a long life of the plant
(20 years or more) can be expected.
 Floating-drum Reactors
 Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester (cylindrical or dome-shaped)
and a moving gasholder.
 The gas-holder floats over the fermentation slurry.
 The gas is collected in the drum, which moves up and down, according to the amount
of gas stored. The gas drum is prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. The position
the drum indicates the amount/pressure of gas available.

 The construction is relatively easy, however, the cost of the steel drum is high and
furthermore the steel parts are susceptible to corrosion. The floating drum plants thus
have a shorter life span than fixed-dome plants. Also regular maintenance costs for the
painting of the drum arise.
 Biogas Plant Operation
The steps required for the operation of biogas plant are:

 a Feeding - Initially feed the digester at optimum level with mixture of water and raw
material at a ratio of 1:1. After 1-2 weeks of operation, continuous daily feeding is
recommended.
 b Seeding - Common practice involves seeding with an adequate population of both the
acid-forming and methanogenic bacteria. Actively digesting sludge from a sewage plant
constitutes ideal "seed" material. As a general guideline, the seed material should be twice
the volume of the fresh manure slurry during the start-up phase, with a gradual decrease
in amount added over a three-week period. If the digester accumulates volatile acids as a
result of overloading, the situation can be remedied by reseeding, or by the addition of
lime or other alkali.
 c Stirring/Agitation - Stirring of digester contents is recommended at regular
intervals may be manually in order to avoid formation of scum.

 d Gas Collection - Gas can be collected from the drum through a non-return valve
system. Preferably a water pipe is most suitable than gas pipe. Gas pipe should be
regularly cleaned to remove moisture contents.
Resources of Biomass
Although almost all biodegradable materials
can be used for the production of biogas but
there are four major sources of biomass worth
to be considered:

Agricultural and forestry residues, municipal

solid waste including kitchen waste, industrial
waste, and specifically grown bioenergy crops.
 Agricultural and forest residues -
Wood and woody debris left after logging,
agriculture waste, crop residues and energy
crops, algal biomass, etc.
 Community based waste - Municipal
solid waste (MSW) much of which is
organic including cooked and uncooked
kitchen, sewage sludge, grass clippings and
garden waste.
Industrial waste - Large quantity solid and
processed liquors is generated by the industries
like breweries, sugar mills, distilleries, food-
processing industries, tanneries, paper and pulp
industries, wood works and furniture.
 Animal manure and Human Excreta -
Animal dung and human excreta, poultry waste.
 Marine feedstock - Seaweeds, fish and
shellfish
Advantages
 Technology cheaper and simpler - than other bio-fuels, and ideal for small scale
application
 Renewable energy - production of methane for use as a fuel.
 Pollution Control - limiting the release of methane, a greenhouse gas directly into the
atmosphere
 Small land area - most of the structure can be built underground
 Cost effective - can be built and repaired with locally available materials, low
operating costs
 Combined treatment - animal, human and solid organic waste treated in the same
digester together
 Long service life - over 20 years
 Waste management - household and organic solid waste disposed of usefully and in
a healthy manner, an effective method to manage the bio-wastes
 Organic fertilizer - the slurry has a high nutrient content and are ideal fertilizer
 Prevent deforestation - reduce pressure on fuel wood and self-sufficiency in energy
for rural community
 Disadvantages

 At large industrial scale not very attractive economically (as compared to other biofuels)
 Substrates need to contain high amounts of organic matter for biogas production
 Incomplete pathogen removal, the digestate might require further treatment
 Limited gas production below 15°C e Requires seeding