RESPIRATION AND

CIRCULATION
Introduction -
i. All living organisms require energy to carry out various life processes.
ii. The energy that is stored in the body in the form of complex organic
compounds (potential energy) is however not usable by the organisms
unless it is converted into usable form. This conversion is achieved
through the process of respiration.

Respiration :
It is a biochemical process of oxidation of organic compounds in an
orderly manner for the liberation of chemical energy in the form of ATP.

C6 H12O6 + 6O2 ------------ 6 CO2 + 6H2 O + 38 ATP

i. For this, the process of gaseous exchange takes place between the
organism and the
environment.
ii. The site of gaseous exchange is called the respiratory surface.
Organs of Respiratory Exchange :
i. Respiratory exchange is a simple physical process.
ii. For efficient gaseous exchange, the respiratory surface should have the
following features : a. It should have a large surface area.
b. It should be thin, highly vascular and permeable to allow exchange of
gases.
c. It should be moist.
Gaseous exchange in plants :
i. The shape and structure of plants facilitate gaseous exchange by
diffusion.
ii. A terrestrial flowering plant has many air spaces between the cells of
stem, leaf and root.
iii. These air spaces are continuous.
iv. Oxygen diffuses into the air space through stomata (the pores on leaves
and young stems), carbon dioxide and water vapour diffuse out.
v. In the aerated soil, the oxygen dissolves in the film of moisture or water
around the root tissue and enters it by diffusion.
vi. Woody flowering plants (trees and shrubs) have an external impervious
bark. Here, gaseous exchange occurs through small pores in the stem
surface, called lenticels.
Respiration in Animals :
i. As compared to plants, animals show wide variety of respiratory surfaces
or organs.
ii. The respiratory surfaces differ in various animals.
iii. In animals, depending upon the complexity of organization and the
surrounding medium, certain parts of the body have become specialized
into different types of respiratory organs.
iv. In the higher animals, these respiratory organs are also associated with a
transport system.
Respiratory surface/ organ in organisms

Organism Habitat
Respiratory surface/ organ
Protists, Sponges Aquatic
Plasma membrane

Flatworms like Planaria,

Annelids (earthworm, nereis),
amphibians (frog) Aquatic or semiquatic
Plasma membrane, moist skin.

Insects Terrestrial
Tracheal tubes and spiracles

Spiders and scorpions Terrestrial

Book lungs

Limulus (Arthropod) Aquatic

Book gills

Amphibian tadpoles of frog,

salamanders and newts Aquatic
External gills
Human Respiratory
system:
i. The respiratory system
brings about inspiration,
expiration and exchange
of gases in the lungs.
ii. These are then
transported by blood
from the lungs to the
different tissues and
parts of the body.
iii. The respiratory system
and be divided into an
upper respiratory
system having external
nares, nasal cavities,
internal nares,
nasopharynx, nose,
throat and associated
structures.
iv. The lower respiratory
system refers to the
larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and lungs.
Nose :
i. The nose has a pair of slit like
openings called external nares or
nostrils for entry of air into the nasal
cavity.
ii. The nasal cavity is divisible into right
and left nasal chambers by a
mesethmoid cartilage.
iii. Each nasal chamber is further divided
into three regions.

a. Vestibule :
i. It is the proximal part about the
nostrils.
ii. Its skin has hair for filtering the air and
traping the dust and suspended
particles in the inhaled air.

b. Respiratory part (conditioner) :

The middle thin walled highly vascular
part for warming and moistening the
inhaled air.

c. Olfactory or sensory chamber :

i,. The uppermost part is lined by olfactory
Pharynx :
i. It is divisible into three parts.
ii. The nasopharynx is the uppermost part from the nasal chamber it leads
into oropharynx (common passage for food and air).
iii. This continues below as the laryngopharynx. Between the nasopharynx
and oropharynx is the palate bone.
iv. The pharynx has a set of lymphoid organs called tonsils.
Larynx :
i. It is called voice box.
ii. It is the part of the respiratory
tract which contains vocal cords
for producing sound.
iii. The larynx extends from the
laryngopharynx and the hyoid
bone to the trachea.
iv. It is a hollow, tubular structure.
v. Its wall is made up of cartilage
plates held by membranes and
muscles.
vi. Internally, it is lined by a pair of
folds of elastic vocal cords (true
vocal cords).
vii. Voice is produced by passage of
air between the vocal cords and
modulations created by tongue,
teeth, lips and nasal cavity.
viii.The larynx opens into the
layngopharynx through a slit like
opening called glottis.
ix. This opening of the trachea or
wind pipe is guarded by a leaf
like flap called epiglottis.
Trachea (wind pipe) :
i. It is a long tube 10 to 12 cm in length.
ii. It runs through the neck in front of the oesophagus and extends into and
upto the middle of thoracic cavity.
iii. It is supported by ‘C’ shaped 16 to 20 rings of cartilage which prevent the
collapse of trachea.
iv. It is lined internally with ciliated, pseudostratified epithelium and mucous
glands that trap the unwanted particles preventing their entry into the
lungs.

Bronchi :
v. The trachea divides into right and left primary bronchi as it reaches the
middle of the thoracic cavity.
vi. The bronchi are supported internally by ‘C’ shaped incomplete rings of
cartilage.
vii. The primary bronchi divide to form secondary and tertiary bronchi which
lead into terminal bronchioles ending into alveoli.
Lungs :
i. These are the main respiratory organs of humans.
ii. One pair of spongy and elastic lungs are present in the thoracic cavity.
iii. Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double pleural membrane, outer
parietal and inner visceral membrane.
iv. Between the two pleura is a pleural cavity filled with a lubricating fluid
called pleural fluid.
v. It is secreted by the membranes.
vi. The right lung is larger and divided into 3 lobes, while the left lung is
smaller and divided into 2 lobes.
vii. Each lobe of the lung has the terminal bronchioles ending in a bunch of
air sacs, each with 10 to 12 alveoli.
Alveoli :
i. These are thin walled
lobulated structures, like a
bunch of grapes.
ii. Each alveolus is
surrounded by a network
of capillaries of pulmonary
artries and veins.
iii. These have highly elastic
wall made up of a single
layer of squamous
epithelium resting on a
basement membrane of
connective tissue.
iv. There are about 700
million alveoli in the lungs
and they provide the
surface area for exchange
of gases.

Diaphragm :
v. It is a muscular septum
that separates the thoracic
and abdominal cavity.
vi. It is dome shaped and on
Mechanism of respiration :
i. Respiration is a biological process involving exchange of gases between
the atmosphere and the lungs and it results in the formation of ATP.
ii. It includes the following processes:
A. Breathing
B. External respiration
C. Internal respiration
D. Cellular respiration
A. Breathing :
i. It is a physical process by which gaseous exchange takes place between
the atmosphere and the lungs.
ii. It involves inspiration and expiration .
iii. Both these steps involved parts of the thoracic cage, the ribs, sternum
and the intercostal muscles and muscles of the diaphragm.

Inspiration :
iv. During inspiration, the atmospheric air is taken in to the lungs.
v. It occurs due to the pressure gradient formed between the lungs and the
atmosphere.
vi. It is an active process in which the diaphragm becomes flat and goes
downward, the external intercostal muscles contract so the ribs and
sternum move upward and outward.
vii. This leads to an increase in the thoracic volume and a decrease in
pressure of thorax and the lungs.
viii.To equalize the low pressure inside the lungs, air from the atmosphere
rushes into lungs. This is inspiration.
Expiration :
i. During expiration, the thorax contracts causing air to be exhaled.
ii. The diaphragm relaxes and is pushed upwards. It becomes dome shaped.
iii. The intercostal muscles also relax pulling the rib cage inward and
downward.
iv. This causes a decrease in thoracic volume and leads to increase in
pressure in the thorax and the lungs as compared to the atmospheric
pressure.
v. So air from the lungs rushes out. This is expiration.
vi. One inspiration and one expiration is one breath.
B. External respiration/ Exchange of gases at the alveolar level :
i. An alveolus consists of a layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on
a basement membrane.
ii. It is intimately associated with a dense network of capillaries.
iii. The capillary wall is also made up of simple squamous epithelium resting
on a thin basement membrane. Both the layers have similar structure and
are thin walled.
iv. Together they make up the respiratory membrane through which gaseous
exchange occurs i.e. between the alveolar air and the blood.
v. Diffusion of gases will take place from an area of higher partial pressure
to an area of lower partial pressure until the partial pressure in the two
regions reaches equilibrium.
i. The partial pressure of carbon-dioxide of blood entering the pulmonary
capillaries is 45 mmHg while partial pressure of carbondioxide in alveolar
air is 40 mmHg.
ii. Due to this difference, carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the
alveolus.
iii. Similarly, partial pressure of oxygen of blood in pulmonary capillaries is
40 mmHg while in alveolar blood it is 104 mmHg.
iv. Due to this difference oxygen diffuses from alveoli to the capillaries.
Pulmonary volumes and capacities (Normal values)
Lung Volumes :
Tidal volume (T.V.) :
i. It is the volume of air inspired or expired during normal breathing.
ii. It is 500 ml.

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) :

iii. The maximum volume of air, or the extra volume of air, that is inspired
during forced breathing in addition to T.V.
iv. Its value is 2000 to 3000ml.

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) :

v. The maximum volume of air that is expired during forced breathing after
normal expiration.
vi. Its value is 1000 to 1100ml.

Dead space (DS) :

vii. The volume of air that is present in the respiratory tract (from nose to the
terminal bronchioles), but not involved in gaseous exchange. It is 150 ml.

Residual volume (RV) :

viii.The volume of air that remains in the lungs and the dead space even after
maximum expiration.
ix. It is 1100 to 1200ml.
Lung capacities :
Total Lung capacity :
i. The maximum amount of air that the lungs can hold after a maximum
forcefull inspiration (5200 to 5800ml).

Vital capacity (VC) :

ii. The maximum amount of air that can be breathed out after a maximum
inspiration.
iii. It is the some total of TV, IRV and ERV and is 4100 to 4600ml.
C. Internal respiration :
i. The two main components of blood involved in transport of the
respiratory gasesCO2 and O2 , are the RBCs and the plasma.

Transport of oxygen :
ii. Of the total oxygen transported only 3% is transported in a dissolved
state by the plasma.
iii. The remaining 97% is bound to the haemoglobin (Hb) present in the
RBCs.
iv. Haemoglobin acts as the respiratory carrier.
v. It has a high affinity for O2 and combines with it to form oxyhaemoglobin.
vi. Theoretically, one molecule of Hb has 4 Fe++, each of which can pick up
a molecule of oxygen (O2 ).

Hb + 4O2 ------------ Hb (4O2 )

i. Oxyhaemoglobin is transported from lungs to the tissues where it readily
dissociates to release O2 .

Hb (4O2 ) ------------ Hb + 4O2

ii. However, the degree of saturation of Hb with O2 depends upon the O2

tension i.e. ppO2 .
• 100% saturation is rare.
• Maximum saturation of 95 to 97% is at ppO2 in alveoli (100 mmHg).
• Degree of saturation decreases with the drop in ppO2 . This begins the
dissociation of
HbO2 .
• At 30 mmHg of ppO2 , only 50% saturation can be maintained.
• The relationship between HbO2 saturation and oxygen tension (ppO2 ) is
called oxygen dissociation curve.
iii. This oxygen - haemoglobin dissociation curve is a sigmoid curve and it
shifts towards the right due to - increase in H+ concentration, increase in
ppCO2 and rise in tempreature and rise in DPG (2, 3 diphosphoglycerate),
formed in the RBCs during glycolysis. It lowers the affinity of haemoglobin
for oxygen.
Bohr effect :
It is the shift of oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve due to change in
partial pressure of CO2 in blood.

Haldane effect :
i. Oxyhaemoglobin functions as an acid. It decreases pH of blood.
ii. Due to increase in the number of H+ ions, HCO3 changes into H2 O and
CO2 .
iii. In the alveoli where ppO2 is high and ppCO2 is low, oxygen binds with
haemoglobin, but in the tissues, where ppO2 is lower and ppCO2 is high,
haemoglobin does not hold as much O2 .
iv. It releases O2 for diffusion into the tissue cells.
Transport of CO2 :
i. Carbon dioxide is readily soluble in water and is transported by RBCs and
plasma in three different forms.

a. By plasma in solution form (7%) :

i. Only 7% of CO2 is transported in a dissolved form as carbonic acid (which
can breakdown into CO2 and H2 O).

CO2 + H2 O H2 CO3
b. By bicarbonate ions (70%) :
i. Nearly 70% of carbondioxide released by the tissue cells diffuses into the
plasma and then into the RBCs.
• In the RBCs, CO2 combines with water in the presence of a Zn containing
enzyme, carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid.
• Carbonic anhydrase enzyme is found in the RBCs and not in the plasma.
• The rate of formation of carbonic acid inside the RBC is very high as
compared to its formation in the plasma.
• Carbonic acid being unstable almost immidiately dissociates into HCO3 and
H+ in the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) leading to
large accumulation of HCO3 inside the RBCs.

CO2 + H2 O ------------ H2 CO3 ---------- H+ + HCO3

• It thus moves out of the RBCs. This would bring about inbalance of the
charge inside the RBCs. To maintain the ionic balance between the RBCs and
the plasma, Cldiffuses into the RBCs. This movement of chloride ions is
known as chloride shift or Hamburger’s phenomenon.
• HCO3 - that comes into the plasma joins to Na+ / K+ forming NaHCO3 /
KHCO3 (to maintain pH of blood).

HCO3 + Na+ ------------ NaHCO3

Sodium bicarbonate
• H+ is taken up by protein (haemoglobin).

Hb + H+ ---------- HHb (Reduced Hb)

These H+ ions might be expected to lower blood pH, but they are buffered by
haemoglobin by the formation of deoxyhaemoglobin (reduced haemoglobin).
• At the level of the lungs in response to the low partial pressure of carbon
dioxide (ppCO2 ) of the alveolar air, hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ions
recombine to form carbonic acid and under the influence of carbonic
anhydrase yields carbon dioxide and water.

H+ + HCO3 ----------- H2 CO3 ---------- CO2 + H2 O

c. By red blood cells (23%) :

i. Carbon dioxide binds with the amino group of the haemoglobin and form
a loosely bound compound carbaminohaemoglobin.
ii. This molecule readily decomposes in region where the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide (ppCO2 ) is low (alveolar region), releasing the carbon
dioxide.

Hb + CO2 ---------- HbCO2

Cellular Respiration :
i. It is the last step taking place inside the cell where food is oxidized and
ATP is generated.
ii. It can be shown by two steps:
a. Oxidation :
i. Breaking down of complex organic molecules into simple inorganic
molecules with release of heat energy.
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 ------------- 6CO2 + 6H2 O + 686 Kcal

b. Phosphorylation :
ii. It involves trapping the heat energy in the form of high energy bond of
ATP molecule.
iii. ATP is used to carry out vital life processes and so is called as energy
currency of the cell.

ADP + iP + 7.3 Kcal --------- ATP

Regulation of Breathing :
i. Respiration is under dual
control : nervous and chemical.
ii. Human adults breathe about 12
times/minute while a new born
about 44 times/ minute.
iii. Normal breathing is an
involuntary process.
iv. Steady rate of respiration is
controlled by neurons located
in the pons and medulla and
are known as the respiratory
centres.
v. It regulates the rate and depth
of breathing.
vi. It is divided into three groups :
dorsal group of neurons in the
medulla (inspiratory center),
ventro lateral group of neurons
in medulla (inspiratory and
expiratory center) and
pneumotaxic center located in
pons (primarily limits
inspiration, slow wave sleep
and rapid eye movement
i. Apneustic center in the
medulla is antagonistic to the
neumotaxic center.
ii. It controls non rapid eye
movement sleep and
wakefullness.
iii. During inspiration when the
lungs expand to a critical
point, the stretch receptors are
stimulated and impulses are
sent along the vagus nerves to
the expiratory centre. It then
sends out inhibitory impulses
to the inspiratory center.
iv. The inspiratory muscles relax
and expiration follows.
v. As air leaves the lungs during
expiration, the lungs are
deflated and the stretch
receptors are no longer
stimulated.
vi. Thus, the inspiratory centre is
no longer inhibited and a new
respiration begins.
i. These events are called the
Hering-Breuer reflex.
ii. The Hering-Breuer reflex
controls the depth and
rhythm of respiration.
iii. It also prevents the lungs
from inflating to the point of
bursting.
iv. The respiratory centre has
connections with the
cerebral cortex which means
we can voluntarily change
our pattern of breathing.
v. Voluntary control is
protective because it enables
us to prevent water or
irritating gases from entering
the lungs. But the ability to
stop breathing is also limited
by the build up of carbon
dioxide in the blood.
Modified Respiratory Movements :
i. Some respiratory movements are different from the normal movements
and help express emotion or clear the air passage.
ii. Of these movements some may be reflexes, but others can be initiated
voluntarily
e.g. coughing and yawning.
Common disorders of respiratory system:
i. The given table shows a list of some common respiratory disorders, their
symptoms, cause and treatment.
Artificial ventilation :
i. It is also called artificial respiration.
ii. It is the method of inducing breathing in a person when natural
respiration has ceased or is faltering.
iii. If used properly and quickly, it can prevent death due to drowning,
choking, suffocation, electric shock, etc.
The process involves two main steps :
iv. establishing and maintaining an open air passage from the upper
respiratory tract to the lungs and force inspiration and expiration as in
mouth to mouth respiration or by mechanical means like ventilator.

Ventilator :
v. A ventilator is a machine that supports breathing and is used during
surgery, treatment for serious lung diseases or other conditions when
normal breathing fails.
vi. It is mainly used in hospitals as part of life support system.
vii.Ventilators do the following,
1. Get oxygen into the lungs.
2. Remove carbon dioxide from the lungs.
3. Help the patient breathe.
 Transportation in living organisms :
i. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular show an
important property of exchange of material with their surrounding as well
as between various parts of the their cell or body.
ii. Organisms take up oxygen and nutrients from the surrounding, these are
circulated within the body for various metabolic activities.
i. The wastes generated within are given out into the surrounding.
ii. Transportation in organisms and animals occurs by diffusion and by active
transport between the cells.
iii. This mechanism is suitable where the surface area of body is large and
the distance between parts of the body in the organism is extremely
small.
iv. It is for transportation within the cell or intracellular transport.
Circulation in animals :
i. In higher animals the circulation is
carried out by special fluids blood and
lymph.
Blood vascular system :
ii. Higher animals from Annelida to
chordata have a special circulating
fluid, the blood which is pumped to the
tissues by the heart through the blood
vessels.
Types of blood vascular system :
1. Open circulation :
i. In animals having an open circulation, blood is circulated through the
body cavities (haemocoels).
ii. The visceral organs lie in the blood filled body cavity.
iii. Exchange of material takes place directly between blood and cells or
tissues of the body.
iv. The blood flows with low pressure and usually does not contain any
respiratory pigment like haemoglobin, so it does not transport respiratory
gases.
e.g. Arthropods (cockroach, studied in 11th std.) and Molluscs.
Closed circulation :
i. In all the vertebrates, higher molluscs and annelids, blood is circulated all
over the body through a network of blood vessels.
ii. In this type of circulation, blood flows within the blood vessels and does
not come in direct contact with cells and body tissues.
iii. Exchange of material between blood and body tissues is through an
intermediate fluid called lymph.
iv. Blood flows with high pressure and contains respiratory pigments like
haemoglobin for transportation of respiratory gases.
i. The closed circulation can be divided into two
main types :
a. Single and double circulation.

A. Single circulation :
i. In single circulation, the blood passes through heart
only once during each cycle as in fishes.
ii. Deoxygenated blood is pumped from heart towards
gills, where it undergoes oxygenation.
iii. This oxygenated blood moves towards various body
parts, gets deoxygenated and returns back to heart
for next cycle.
Since, the heart of fish carries only deoxygenated blood, it also
called ‘venous heart’.

Double circulation :
i. In double circulation, blood passes through heart twice during each cycle;
it occurs in birds and mammals.
ii. In these animals, heart pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs for
oxygenation and it returns to heart as oxygenated blood. This is
‘pulmonary circulation’.
iii. The oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart towards various body
parts (except lungs) and returns back to the heart as deoxygenated blood.
This is ‘systemic circulation’.
iv. Human heart shows double circulation.
Circulatory System in
Human :
i. The human
circulatory system is
composed of blood
vascular and
lymphatic system.

Blood vascular
system :
ii. In human beings it
consists of blood,
heart and blood
vessels.
iii. It is responsible for
various functions
like transport,
homeostasis and
protection.
Blood Composition and Coagulation :
i. Study of blood is called haematology.
ii. An average adult has about 4 to 6 liters of blood.
iii. It is a red coloured fluid connective tissue derived from embryonic
mesoderm.
iv. It is slightly alkaline (pH 7.4), salty and viscous fluid.
v. It is heaviere then water.
vi. It has two main components- the fluid plasma (55%) and the formed
elements i.e. blood cells (44%).
vii. These can be separated by centrifugation.
Plasma :
It constitutes 55% of the blood. It is a straw-coloured, slightly alkaline,
viscous fluid and consists of following:
Formed elements :
i. The blood cells that are produced in the body are collectively called
formed elements.
ii. Human blood contains three types of formed elements as red blood
corpuscles (RBCs), white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and platelets.
Red blood corpuscles / Erythrocytes :
i. Erythrocytes are the most abundant cells in the human body.
ii. They are circular, biconcave and enucleated (in camel and llama they are
nucleated).
iii. The red colour or RBCs is due to an oxygen carrying pigment, the
haemoglobin, in their cytoplasm.
iv. In males, their average number is about 5.1-5.8 million/mm3 (per µL) and
in females about 4.3-5.2 million/mm3 . This is called total RBC count.
v. The average life span of RBCs is 120 days.
vi. The process of formation of RBCs is called erythropoiesis.
vii. RBCs are produced from haemocytoblasts / reticulocytes.
viii.The erythropoeitic organ of the foetus is the liver and spleen and in the
adult, it is mainly the red bone marrow.
i. Vitamin B12, folic acid and heme protein are required for production of
RBCs.
ii. The old and worn out RBCs are destroyed in the liver and spleen
(graveyard of RBCs).
iii. Condition with increase in the number of RBCs is called polycythemia and
with decrease in number of RBCs is called as erythrocytopenia.
iv. The hormone erythropoietin produced by the kideny cells stimulates the
bone marrow for production of RBCs.
i. Mature erythrocyte is devoid of nucleus, mitochondria or other membrane
bound cell organelles.
ii. Its cytoplasm (stroma) is rich in haemoglobin and O2 carrying
proteinaceous pigment that gives red colour to the RBCs and blood.
iii. It also contains an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase.
iv. Erythrocytes are responsible for the transport of respiratory gases O2 and
CO2 , maintaining pH and viscosity of blood.
v. They also contribute in the process of blood clotting.
vi. The hematocrit is ratio of the volume of RBCs to total blood volume of
blood.
vii. It is different for men and women.
White blood corpuscles / Leucocytes:
i. Leucocytes are colourless, nucleated and amoeboid cells larger than
RBCs.Due to their amoeboid movement they can move out of the
capillary walls by a process called diapedesis.
ii. A normal adult has on an average, 5000-11000 WBCs per mm3 of blood.
iii. Decrease in number of WBCs is called leucopenia (common in HIV, AIDS
and TB patients or those exposed to radiations, shock, etc).
i. Temporary increase in number of WBCs is called as leucocytosis.
ii.It is due to infection.
iii.
It also occurs during pregnancy and in newborn babies.
iv.Uncontrolled increase in number of WBCs is a type of blood cancer called
leukemia.
v. WBCs are mainly concerned with defense mechanism i.e. protection.

Types of WBCs :
vi. These are colourless, irregular nucleated cells and show polymorphism
(exist in variable forms).
vii. They can be classified into two main types such as granulocytes and
agranulocytes.
A. Granulocytes :
i. These are WBCs with a granular cytoplasm, also called Polymorpho
nuclear leucocyte (PMN) cells.
ii. They have lobulated nuclei in different shapes.
iii. Granulocytes are formed from myeloid stem cells and once formed, do
not divide.
iv. Granulocytes constitute about 72% of total WBCs.
v. Granules are actually secretory vesicles which contain various secretions,
enzymes, etc.
vi. Depending upon staining property of the granules, these granulocytes are
classified into three types as neutrophils, basophils and acidophills.
a. Neutrophils :
i. Granules are very fine, large in number, evenly distributed and stained
with neutral stains (dyes).
ii. Neutrophils are about 70% of total WBCs.
iii. These cells are spherical and nucleus is several lobed (2- 7).
iv. These are able to perform amoeboid movements and phagocytosis.
v. They are responsible for destroying pathogens by the process of
phagocytosis.
vi. ‘Pus’ is mixture of dead neutrophils, damaged tissues and dead microbes.
b. Basophils / Cyanophils :
i. These cells have very few granules of large size, and stain with basic
stains like methylene blue.
ii. Basophils are non-phagocytic, small, spherical cells and are about 0.5-1%
of total WBCs.
iii. Nucleus is twisted.
iv. They are present in infected and allergic conditions only.
v. Basophils secrete heparin, histamine and serotonin.
c. Eosinophils / Acidophills :
i. Acidophills contain lysosomal granules that are stained to red colour with
acidic stains like eosin.
ii. Eosinophils are about 1 – 3 % of total WBCs.
iii. Nucleus is bilobed.
iv. They destroy antigenantibody complex by phagocytosis.
v. Their number increases in allergic condition and they show antihistaminic
property.
vi. They are also responsible for detoxification as they produce antitoxins.
B. Agranulocytes :
i. Agranulocytes are about 28% of total WBCs.
ii.Cytoplasm of these leucocytes is without granules.
iii.
They are formed from lymphoid stem cells and can divide by mitosis.
iv.Nuclei of agranulocytes are large in size but are not lobulated like the
granulocytes.
v. There are two types of agranulocytes - Lymphocytes and Monocytes.
a. Lymphocytes :
i. Lymphocytes are the smallest of all WBCs and have a large spherical
nucleus.
ii. They constitute about 25-30% of total WBCs.
iii. Depending upon function, two types of lymphocytes are present as B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
iv. B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow and are responsible for antibody
production/humoral immunity.
v. It is a highly specific antigen, antibody immunity T-lymphocytes mature in
thymus and are responsible for cell-mediated immunity.
vi. Helper T-cells, killer T-cell, memory T-cells and suppressor T-cells are four
main subtypes of T-lymphocytes.
b. Monocytes :
i. Monocytes are the largest of all the WBCs. Its nucleus is large and bean or
kidney shaped.
ii. They form 3-5% of WBCs.
iii. Monocytes are actively motile and give rise to macrophages.
iv. They are mainly phagocytic and destroy the bacteria and dead or
damaged tissue by phagocytosis.
Thrombocytes / Platelets:
i. Thrombocytes are cellular fragments formed from the large cells called
megakaryocytes.
ii. These are produced in bone marrow.
iii. They are very small, oval shaped cell fragments without nucleus.
iv. Normal count of thrombocytes in human blood is about 2.5 – 4.5 lakh /
mm3 of blood.
v. If number of thrombocytes decreases than normal, condition is called as
thrombocytopenia. This condition causes internal bleeding .
vi. Platelets secrete platelet factors which are essential in blood clotting.
vii. They also seal the ruptured blood vessels by formation of platelet plug/
thrombus.
viii.They secrete serotonin a local vasoconstrictor.
Blood Clotting/ Coagulation of blood :
i. Clotting or coagulation is the process of converting the liquid blood into a
solid form.
ii. This process may be initiated by contact of blood with any foreign
surface (intrinsic process) or with damaged tissue (extrinsic process).
iii. Intrinsic and extrinsic processes involve interaction of various substances
called clotting factors by a step wise or cascade mechanism.
iv. There are in all twelve clotting factors numbered as I to XIII (factor VI is
not in active use).
v. Interaction of these factors in a cascade manner leads to formation of the
enzyme thrombin.
vi. Thromboplastin, helps in the formation of enzyme prothrombinase.
vii. This enzyme inactivates heparin and it also converts inactive prothrombin
into its active thrombin.
i. Thrombin converts soluble blood proteinfibrinogen into insoluble fibrin.
ii. Fibrin forms a mesh in which platelets and other blood cells are trapped to
form the clot.
Heart :
i. Heart is the main pumping organ of the circulatory system.
ii. It is reddish brown in colour, hollow, muscular organ, roughly the size of
one’s fist.
iii. Its average weight is about 300gm in males and 250gm in females.
iv. It is conical in shape and lies in mediastenum- i.e. the space between two
lungs.
v. It is broader at upper end (base) and conical at lower end (apex).
vi. Conical end is slightly tilted to left side and rests above the diaphragm.
vii. Heart is enclosed in a membranous sac called pericardium.
viii.Pericardium is formed of two main layers - outer fibrous and inner serous
pericardium.
i. Serous pericardium is soft, moist and elastic.
ii. It is formed of squamous epithelium and is further divisible into two layers
as parietal and visceral layer.
iii. Parietal and visceral layers of serous pericardium are separated by a
pericardial space. This space is filled with pericardial fluid (about 50ml)
which acts as a shock absorber and protects the heart from mechanical
injuries.
iv. It also keeps the heart moist and acts as lubricant
Heart wall :
i. The heart is mesodermal in origin.
ii. Its wall is formed of three layers, outer epicardium, middle myocardium
and inner endocardium.
iii. Epicardium is thin and formed of a single layer of flat squamous
epithelium resting on basement membrane.
iv. Myocardium is the middle thick layer formed of cardiac muscles.
v. Endocardium is a single thin layer formed of squamous epithelium.
vi. The epicardium and endocardium are protective in function whereas
myocardium is responsible for contraction and relaxation of heart.
External structure of heart :
i. The human heart is four chambered.
ii. The two superior chambers are called atria (auricles) and inferior two are
called ventricles.
iii. Externally, the atria are separated from ventricles by a transverse groove
called coronary sulcus or atrioventricular groove.
iv. The two ventricles are externally separated from each other by two
grooves, the anterior and posterior inter-ventricular sulci.
v. Coronary arteries and coronary veins run through these sulci.
vi. Pulmonary trunk arising from right ventricle and aorta from left ventricle
are present on anterior surface of heart.
i. The pulmonary trunk bifurcates into right and left pulmonary arteries.
ii. Aorta (systemic aorta) is divisible into three regions as ascending aorta,
systemic arch /aortic arch and descending aorta.
iii. The Ligamentum arteriosum joins pulmonary trunk and aortic arch.
iv. It is the remnant of an embryonic duct called ductus arteriosus.
v. The aortic arch gives out three arteries viz. brachiocephalic (innominate)
artery, left common carotid and left subclavian.
vi. The right atrium recieves superior and inferior vena cava along its dorsal
surface.
vii. Pulmonary veins open into left atrium along the dorsal surface of heart.
Internal structure of heart:
Atria :
i. These are the thin-walled
receiving chambers of heart.
ii. They are separated from each
other by inter-auricular
septum.
iii. Interauricular septum has an
oval depression called fossa
ovalis.
iv. It is a remnant of the
embryonic aperture called
foramen ovalis.
v. Superior vena cava (precaval),
inferior vena cava (postcaval)
and coronary sinus open into
the right atrium.
vi. Opening of the postcaval is
guarded by a Eustachian
valve while the Thebesian
valve guards the opening of
coronary sinus into right
atrium.
vii. Four pulmonary veins open
into the left atrium.
i. Both the atria open
into the ventricles of
their respective sides
by atrioventricular
apertures.
ii. These openings are
guarded by cuspid
valves.
iii. The tricuspid valve is
present in the right
AV aperture and
bicuspid valve
(mitral valve) is
present in the left AV
aperture.
iv. All these heart
valves help in
maintaining a
unidirectional flow of
blood.
v. They also avoid back
flow of blood.
Ventricles :
i. These are inferior, thick-walled pumping chambers of the heart.
ii. The right and left ventricles are separated by an interventricular septum.
iii. Wall of the left ventricle is more muscular and about 3-times thicker than
the right ventricle.
iv. Inner surface of the ventricles shows several ridges called columnae
carnae or trabeculae carnae which divide the lumen of ventricle into small
pockets or fissures.
v. The lumen of ventricles also shows inelastic fibers called chordae
tendinae.
vi. These attach the bicuspid and tricuspid valves to the ventricular wall
(papillary muscles) and regulate their opening and closing.
vii. The right ventricle opens into the pulmonary
aorta and left ventricle opens into the aorta.
viii.These openings are guarded by three semilunar
valves each.
ix. These valves prevent the backward flow of
blood into the ventricles.
Pumping action of heart :
i. The heart acts as the main
pumping organ of the
circulatory system.
ii. The pumping action is
brought about by a
rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of the cardiac
muscles or heart muscles.
iii. Contraction of heart
muscles is systole and
relaxation of heart muscles
is diastole.
iv. A single systole followed by
diastole makes one heart
beat.
v. The heart beats 70 to 72
times per minute. This is
called heart rate.
vi. During each heart beat
ventricles pump about 70
ml of blood this is called
stroke volume.
vii. It means heart pumps
about 72 (heart rate) x 70
Conducting tissue of heart:
i. The human heart is myogenic i.e. the heart is capable of generating a
cardiac contraction independent of nervous input.
ii. It also shows auto rhythmicity i.e. it can generate its own rhythm by
specialized muscles.
iii. A specialized cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue is distributed in
the heart.
iv. A part of this nodal tisse is present in the upper right corner of the right
atrium. It is called SA Node or Sinoatrial node.
v. It lies at the base of opening of superior vena cava. Another mass of
nodal tissue, the modified muscular fibers also
called autorhythmic fibers
(conducting tissue) control the
beating rate of heart.
vi. Conducting (nodal) tissue consists of
SA node, AV node, bundle of His and
Purkinje fibers.
Conducting system of the heart :
i. SA node (sinu-atrial node) is present in the right atrium.
ii. It acts as pacemaker of heart because it has the power of generating a
new wave of contraction and making the pace of contraction.
iii. SA node passes the contraction to the left ventricle and also to the AV
node.
iv. AV node (atrio-ventricular node) is present in the right atrial wall near the
base of interatrial septum. It acts as pace setter of heart.
v. Bundle of His/ Tawara branches start from AV node and pass through
interventricular septum.
vi. Bundle of His forms two branches, the right and left bundles, one for each
ventricle. These branches form network in ventricular walls and these are
called Purkinje fibers.
vii. Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers spread impulses in
ventricles. As a result both the ventricles contract
simultaneously.
Working mechanism of human heart :
Cardiac Cycle :
i. Human heart alternately contracts and relaxes.
ii. Contraction is called systole and relaxation is called diastole.
iii. Atria and ventricles contract alternately.
iv. Consecutive systole and diastole constitutes a single heartbeat or cardiac
cycle.
v. It is completed in 0.8 sec.
vi. On an average, 72 beats are completed in one minute in an adult, at rest.
a. Atrial systole (AS):
i. Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood and left atrium receives
oxygenated blood.
ii. When both the atria are completely filled with blood, pressure is exerted
on the wall.
iii. In response to this pressure, SA node gets excited and generates cardiac
impulse.
iv. Due to this, cardiac muscles in the atrial wall contract causing atrial
systole.
v. During atrial systole, blood is pumped into ventricles.
vi. Blood is prevented from going back to the veins and coronary sinus by
Eustachian and Thebesian valve respectively.
vii. After completing systole the atria go into diastole.
viii.In normal conditions, atrial systole is for 0.1 sec. and atrial diastole (AD) is
for 0.7 sec.
b. Ventricular systole (VS):
i. The impulse which started from SA node now reaches the AV node and it
gets excited.
ii. AV node sends impulses to bundle of His and from bundle of His to
Purkinje fibers.
iii. Purkinje fibers spread impulses all over the wall of ventricles.
iv. Due to this, ventricular wall contracts causing ventricular systole.
v. During ventricular systole, right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into
pulmonary trunk and left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into aorta.
vi. During ventricular systole the cuspid valves close both the
atrioventricular apertures preventing blood flow into atria (lubb sound is
heard).
vii. In normal conditions, ventricular systole lasts for 0.3 sec. and ventricular
diastole (VD) lasts for 0.5 sec.
viii.During ventricular diastole, semilunar valves are closed, preventing
backflow of blood from pulmonary trunk and systemic aorta into
ventricles (dub sound is heard).
ix. For about 0.4 second, both atria and ventricles are in diastole.
x. When all the chambers of heart are in diastole, this condition is called
joint diastole or complete diastole. Thus, duration of one cardiac cycle is
0.8 sec.
i. Right side of heart contains deoxygenated and left contains oxygenated
blood.
ii. Total volume of blood pumped during one ventricular systole is called
stroke volume (SV) and it is it approximately 70 ml.

Cardiac output (CO):

iii. It is the volume of blood pumped out per min.
iv. For a normal adult human being it is calculated as follows : (CO) = SV ×
HR = 70 × 72 = 5040 ml/min
Blood vessels :
i. There are three main types of blood vessels in the human circulatory
system viz, arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries :
ii. These blood vessels carry blood from heart to various parts/organs of the
body, there they branch into arterioles and further into fine capillaries.
iii. They normally carry oxygenated blood to all parts of the body (except the
pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood).
iv. They are usually situated deep in the body except a few like the radial,
brachial, etc. which are superficially located.
In a T. S. of artery, its wall shows three layers.
1. Tunica externa or tunica adventitia
2. Tunica media
3. Tunica interna or intima

i. The outermost tunica externa is a thick, tough layer of collagen fibers.

ii. The tunica media is made up of smooth muscles and elastic fibres.
iii.This thick muscular and elastic layer makes the arterial wall pulsatile.
iv. The innermost tunica interna is a single layer of flat compact endothelial
cells surrounding the lumen.
v. The angular margin around the lumen shows tesselations.
vi. Arterial lumen is devoid of valves and blood flows through it rapidly and
with high pressure.
Veins :
i. Veins are thin walled, mostly superficial vessels which carry blood from
the organs towards the heart.
ii. The capillaries around the various organs join to form the veins.
iii. Except for the pulmonary veins or other veins of the body carry
deoxygenated blood towards the heart.

Portal vein :
iv. A portal vein e.g. hepatic portal vein, differs from the other normal veins
in that its starts as capillaries from one organ and capillarises in some
intermediate organ
e.g. liver, before taking the blood towards the heart.
ii. Histologically, the veins also show the three layers like in the arteries.
iii. The tunica externa, tunica media and tunica interna.
iv. However, the tunica media is comparitively thiner
and their lumen is wide and narrow. Internal valves
at regular intervals can be seen.
v. Blood flows with flow pressure and the valves
prevent backflow of blood.
Capillary :
i. These are a network of
minute blood vessels.
ii. They are thin walled having
a single layer of flat
squamous epithelium resting
on a single basement
membrane.
iii. They are mainly involved in
exchange of materials.
iv. Wall of capillaries is formed
of single layer of squamous
epithelium and it is
stretchable.
v. Blood flows through the
capillaries under high
pressure.
vi. Wall of capillaries bear small
endothelial pores through
which blood cells (WBCs) can
escape by the process called
as diapedesis.
Pulse :
i. It is a series of pressure waves that travel through the arteries due to
ventricular systole.
ii. It is the strongest in arteries closer to the heart and gradually becomes
weak in arteries away from heart.
iii. It can be felt easily in the superficial arteries like radial artery in the wrist
and carotid artery in the neck.
iv. The pulse can be felt at particular points on the body.
v. Pulse rate is equal to heart rate. Pulse rate higher than normal (above 100
beats/min) is called tachycardia and slower pulse rate (below 60
beats/min) than normal is called bradycardia.
Blood pressure (B. P.):
i. The pressure exerted by blood on
the wall of the blood vessels is called
blood pressure.
ii. It is measured by the
sphygmomanometer. It is usually
measured from the arteries.

Arterial Blood Pressure:

iii. Pressure exerted by blood on the
wall of artery is arterial blood
pressure.
iv. Pressure on arterial wall during
ventricular contraction (systole) is
systolic pressure (SP). For a normal
healthy adult the average value is
120 mmHg.
v. Pressure on arterial wall during
relaxation of ventricles is diastolic
pressure (DP).
vi. For a normal healthy adult it is 80
mmHg. B P = SP / DP = 120/80
mmHg Blood pressure is normally
written as 120/80 mmHg.
vii. Difference between systolic and
i. It may be due to high or low blood volume, arterial inelasticity or
hardening of arteries (arteriosclerosis), deposition of fats like cholesterol
in the arteries (atherosclerosis), renal diseases and emotion induced
hormonal changes, obesity, etc.
ii. Blood pressure lower than normal i.e. below 90/60 mmHg is called
hypotension and blood pressure higher than normal i.e. above 140/90
mmHg is hypertension.
iii. Various factors that affect the blood pressure are cardiac output,
peripheral resistance, blood volume, length and diameter of blood
vessels, viscosity of blood, age, gender, sleep, emotions, exercise, etc
i. Normal cardiac output is 5 lit/min.
ii. Increase in cardiac output increases systolic pressure.
iii. Peripheral resistance depends upon the diameter of blood vessels.
iv. Decrease in diameter of arterioles and capillaries under the effect of
vasoconstrictors like vasopressin or ADH cause increase in peripheral
resistance and thereby increase in blood pressure.
v. Blood loss in accidents decreases blood volume and thus the blood
pressure.
vi. Blood pressure is directly proportional to Viscosity of blood.
vii. Blood pressure increases with age due to increase in inelasticity of blood
vessels.
viii.Amount of blood brought to the heart via the veins per unit time is called
the venous return and it is directly proportional to blood pressure.
ix. Blood pressure is also directly proportional to the total length of the blood
vessel.
x. Blood pressure can also be affected by vaso constriction or vaso dilation.
xi. Females have slightly lower BP than males her age before menopause.
xii. However, the risk of high B. P. increases in the females after menopause
sets in.
Measurement of blood pressure:
i. Blood pressure is measured with the help of an instrument called
sphygmomanometer. This instrument consists of inflatable rubber bag
cuff covered by a cotton cloth.
ii. It is connected with the help of tubes to a mercury manometer on one
side and a rubber bulb on the other side.
iii. During measurement, the person is asked to lie in a sleeping position.
iv. The instrument is placed at the level of heart and the cuff is tightly
wrapped around upper arm.
v. The cuff is inflated till the brachial artery is blocked due to external
pressure.
vi. Then pressure in the cuff is slowly lowered till the first pulsatile sound is
heard.
vii. At this moment, pressure indicated in manometer is systolic pressure.
viii.Sounds heard during measurement of blood pressure are called as
Korotkoff sounds.
i. Pressure in the cuff is further lowered till any pulsatile sound cannot be
heard due to smooth blood flow.
ii. At this moment, pressure indicated in manometer is diastolic pressure.
iii. An optimal blood presure (normal) level reads 120/80 mmHg.
Hypertension :
i. Persistently raised blood pressure higher than the normal is called
hypertension.
ii. 140/90 mmHg is called as threshold of hypertension and the 180/120
mmHg and higher readings are dangerous to the health.
iii. It may damage the heart, brain and kidneys.
iv. Under the condition of hypertension, heart uses more energy for pumping
which causes angina pectoris- the chest pains due to lowered blood
supply to cardiac muscles and may lead to myocardial infarction.
v. There are more chances of brain hemorrhage due to hypertension as
arteries in brain are less protected by surrounding tissues as compared to
other organs.
vi. In kidney, hypertension may cause kidney failure.
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) :-
i. It is also known as atherosclerosis.
ii. In this, calcium, fat cholesterol and fibrous tissues gets deposited in blood
vessels suppling blood to the heart muscles making the lumen narrow.
Angina Pectoris :
i. It is the pain in the chest resulting from a reduction in the blood supply to
the cardiac muscles because of atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis.
ii. It is charactarized by severe pain and heaviness in the chest.
iii. The pain may spread to the neck, lower jaw, left arm and left shoulder.
iv. The pain usually results from exertion, when there is more demand of
oxygen by the heart, but the supply does not meet the requirement.
Angiography :
i. X-ray imaging of the cardiac blood vessels to locate the position of
blockages is called angiography.
ii. Depending upon the degree of blockage, remedial procedures like
angioplasty or by-pass surgery are performed.
iii. In angioplasty, a stent is inserted at the site of blockage to restore the
blood supply while in by-pass surgery, the atherosclerotic region is by-
passed with part of vein or artery taken from any other suitable part of
the body, like hands or legs.
Heart Transplant :
i. Replacement of severely damaged heart by normal heart from brain-dead
or recently dead donor is called heart transplant.
ii. Heart transplant is necessary in case of patients with end-stage heart
failure and severe coronary arterial disease.
iii. Silent Heart Attack : Silent heart attack, also known as silent myocardial
infarction is a type of heart attack that lacks the general symptoms of
classic heart attack like extreme chest pain, hypertension, shortness of
breath, sweating.
iv. Symptoms of silent heart attack are so mild that a person often confuses
it for regular discomfort and thereby ignores it.
v. It has been studied that men are more affected by silent heart attack than
women.
Electrocardiogram:
i. Graphical recording of electrical variations detected at the surface of body
during their propagation through the wall of heart is electrocardiogram
(ECG). This recording may be in the form of printout or onscreen display.
ii. The instrument used for this recording is the ECG machine or
electrocardiograph. This instrument detects and amplifies the signals.
iii. Various electrodes are used for recording of signals.
iv. Four electrodes are positioned on limbs; two on arms and two on legs.
These are limb electrodes.
v. Six electrodes are positioned on chest. These are chest electrodes.
vi. In a normal record, three different waves are recognized as P-wave, QRS
complex and T-wave.
i. P-wave is a small upward deflection from baseline of graph. It represents
the atrial depolarization.
ii. The QRS complex starts as a slight downward deflection from baseline,
continues as sharp and large upright wave and ends as a downward
wave.
iii. QRS complex represents the ventricular depolarization.
iv. T-wave is small, wide and upwardly elevated wave. It represents the
ventricular repolarization.
v. ECG helps to diagnose the abnormality in conducting pathway,
enlargement of heart chambers, damages to cardiac muscles, reduced
blood supply to cardiac muscles and causes of chest pain.
vi. A physicial can find out the defect in the heart by examining the wave
pattern and the time interval betwen them.
Lymphatic System :
i. Lymphatic system
consists of lymph,
lymphatic vessels,
some organs and
tissues.
ii. The word ‘lymph’
means ‘clear water’
and it is a fluid
connective tissue
with almost similar
composition to the
blood except RBCs,
platelets and some
proteins.
iii. Fluid from
intercellular spaces
of the body tissue
enters into the
lymphatic vessels,
from here it is
discharged into the
blood vessels
(veins) through the
thoracic duct and
Regulation of Cardiac Cycle

Autonomic nerve impulses alter the

activities of the S-A and A-V nodes