European History

By: DSP YASH RAJ

Reading
sources

History of Modern Europe History of Modern Europe

1789-1981 H.L Peacock Since 1789
By: V.D. Mahajan
Part 1 Syllabus Overview
 The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (1789-1815)
▪ The causes of the French Revolution
▪ The consequences of the Revolution
▪ Napoleon’s rise to power
▪ Creation of Empire
▪ The Continental system
▪ The fall of Napoleon
 The Concert of Europe (1815-1830)
▪ The Congress of Vienna
▪ Metternich’s Era
▪ The Concert of Europe and Congress System
▪ Balance of Power
 Forces of Continuity and Change in Europe (1815-1848)
▪ Nationalism
▪ Liberalism
▪ Romanticism
▪ Socialism
▪ Industrial Revolution
▪ Colonialism
▪ Consequences
 The Eastern Question (1804-1856)
▪ The nature of the Eastern question
▪ The Crimean War
▪ Russo Turkish War 1877
▪ Consequences

Unification of Italy Unification of Germany

▪ The effects of the revolution of ▪ The rise of Bismarck
1848 ▪ Diplomatic events
▪ The obstacles to unification ▪ The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
▪ Cavour and the unification of Italy ▪ The Franco- Prussian War (1870-
1871)
▪ The Process of Italian unification ▪ The triumph of Bismarck and
(1859-1871) process of unification

 The Origins of First World War (1890-1914)

▪ Formation of Alliances and Counter Alliances
▪ The Balkans War (1912-1913)
▪ The outbreak of the World War 1
 Part –II
 The First World War and its aftermath
▪ The War (1914-1918) and peace treaties
▪ The League of Nations
 Dictatorships in Europe
▪ Fascism in Italy under Musssolini
▪ Hitler, Nazism and Germany
▪ Russia , Marxism Revolution and its working under Stalin
▪ Great Depression and its effects on Europe
▪ Appeasement
▪ The Arm race
▪ The Sudetenland Crisis (1938) ▪ The distraction of Czechoslovakia (1939)
 The Second World War and its Effects on Europe
▪ The Main Events of the War
▪ Impact of war
 Post- War Europe
▪ The post war settlements
▪ The United Nations
▪ Economic Recovery of Europe, Marshal Plan
▪ German Question
▪ NATO ▪ Decolonization
 Cold War Europe (1955-1991)
▪ Effects of cold war
▪ Warsaw Pact (1955)
▪ The European Economic Community (EEC)
▪ Nuclear Non-Proliferation Agreement
▪ Charles Degaule and France
▪ Spread of communist regimes in Europe XIII.
 Europe (1991-2012)
▪ The Gorbachev and Disintegration of USSR
▪ The reunification of Germany
▪ The Balkan crisis of 1990s
▪ The European Union
▪ Role of Europe in War against terrorism
▪ Global Economic Crisis and Europe
Europe in glance before French
Revolution
Politically/ Militarily
 Aristocratically Organized Europe.
 Despotism
 The era of Realpolitik {The game of strong over weak}
 Territorial thirst
Socially
 Heavily divided society
“The great sub-structure of European society was an unhappy,
 Urban vs Rural unfree, unprotected, undeveloped mass of human beings, to
 Feudalistic in nature (Serfdom) whom an opportunity for growth and improvement was closed
‘ on every side”
 Religious diversity and state’s Authority
Economic Landscape
 Predominantly agrarian
 Mercantilism thriving trade and commerce
 Wealth disparities
Germany
 Weak and disunited
 Bond of Union {inclusion in the Holy Roman Empire}
 Voltaire pointed out the Holy Roman Empire was neither
Holy nor Roman nor Empire
 Sandwiched between Austrian and Prussian turf.

 Prussia
 1740-86 under Frederick the Great raised its prestige high.
 Territorial expansion towards Poland
 Conquered Silesia
 Diplomatic plays with Austria against Russia
 Creation of Frustenband (the League of German Princes)
“ Take what you can, you are never wrong unless you are
obliged to give back,” if there is anything to be gained by
being honest, honest we will be; and if it is necessary
to deceive, let us be scoundrels.”
 Enlightened Despot
Austria-Hungary
 Ruled by Hapsburg, their ruler was also Emperor of HRE (weak due to
diversity)
 Territorial gains in Poland
 Defacto ruler Maria Theresa was Succeeded by Joseph II.
 Enlightened Despots
 Hasty Implementation of Philosophical ideas brought about his dissolution.
[ “Here lies a Prince who, with the best of intentions, failed in all he
attempted” ] Joseph`s words for himself.

“I came to Russia as a poor

Russia girl, but Russia has dowered
me richly, but I have paid her
 Ruled by clever and crooked Catherine the Great (1762-96)
back with Azov, the Crimea
 Centralized authority and the Ukraine”
 Serfdom on peak (Catherine)
 Territorial expansion towards Turkey and Poland
 Gave Russia supremacy over Turkey (Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji 1774)
 Peace could not last long, rather war renewed in 1787 (Treaty of Jassy 1791)
 Russia played a significant role in 3 Partitions of Poland and got Lion’s Share.
Great Britain

 Ruled by Hanoverians, by the provision of the Act of Settlement

 Whig Oligarchy
 England fought Jenkin`s Ear war and for 7 years war.
 Disputes with English colonies took a drastic turn. (AWI) Treaty of Versailles 1783.
 The Industrial and Agrarian Revolution was underway.

Poland
 Enjoyed powerful positions and witnessed a subsequent decline.
 Stood as a wall against Turkish expansion toward Europe.
 Internal flaws Libertum Vito, Religious intolerance, Racial differences,
 Foreign Involvement and a weak king was the last nail in the coffin. Prussian
 Russian Share
Suffered 3 Partition ( 1772 1793  1795 }
 Sandwiched between Russia and Prussia.
Share Austria
n Share

 Reforms
 “ Partitioning of Poland was the shameless and barren Act of European
Diplomacy”(Guedella)
 Italy
 Divided among several states
 After the war of Spanish succession, Austria succeeded Spain.
 Austria had Milan in direct sovereignty
 Control over Tuscany, Parma, Lucca, Moderna
 Papal states  the worst-governed states in Europe
 Tuscany  best governed
 House of 7-8 civilizations

Spain
 Great country during the 16th century under Charles V and Philip II.
 Second-rate country in 17th century.
 The grandson of Louis IV of France became ruler of Spain.
 Various reforms were carried out by ministers like Albernoi & Patino.
 France

 France under Ancien Regime The Intellect Movement

 War-mongering rulers Louis XIV and Louis XV
 France under heavy debts
 Inapt Ruler Louis XVI {Intervention of Marie Antoinette}
 Poor economy & Extravagance
 House of maladministration
Montesqui Voltair
 Rotten Administration system eu e
 Hardcore taxes
 Rise of Middle class in urban areas.

Rousseau
French Revolution 1789
French Revolutions

 “Revolutions may begin, as wars often begin, not

because people positively want them. They happen
because people want other things that in a certain set
of circumstances implicate them in revolution or war”
Causes of French Revolution

Intellectu
Social Political Economic
al
French Revolution
Social Causes
 “ The Revolution of 1789 was much less a rebellion Privileged
1%
against despotism than a rebellion against inequality”
 Sheer land division Unprivileged

 99%
Old-fashioned feudalism and old customs
 Roman Catholic Church was a state within a state.
 Privileged class’ exemption from taxes Upper clergy

“ The noble fight, the clergy pray and Division within Clergy
the people pay” ( French maxim of that time )
lower clergy
 Poor conditions & harassment of peasants by landlords.
 Heavy Taxes
TAILLE THE LAND TAX
VINGTIEME INCOME TAX
GABELLE SALT TAX
CORVEE ROAD TAX
 Leo Gershoy marked these causes for the worst conditions of peasants
Continuous Population growth *
Price hike **

 Middle Class’ dissent

Political Causes
 Rotten Administrative System: A story of dissatisfaction
 Absolute powers resided with Kings
 Interference of Wives Louis XV and Louis XVI
 Extravagance of Court of Versailles
 400 different laws in function with overlapping jurisdiction
 Heavy army expenditure
 Torturous Tax Collection System
 Louis XV had abolished French Parlements (High courts of Justice)
 Incapability of successors of Louis XIV

Louis XV made the same mistakes, warmonger.

Louis XVI “ It seems that the Universe is falling on me “

 Louis XVI a King with low confidence, and control.

 Intellectual expedition to push revolution in
France
French Philosophers’ preaching played a significant role in unfolding the
mega event.
Montesquieu (1689- Voltaire (1694-1778) Rousseau (1712-78)
1755)
Polished & Eminent Voltaire attacked the The father of French
Lawyer tradition, beliefs & Revolution
abuses
 Criticized Ancien  Appealed Masses with Man was born free but
Regime his intellect he is everywhere in
chains
 Stood for constitutional  Church was his main  Inculcated the
form government Target philosophy of equality
Criticized abuses in  Raised for religious  Social contract
moderate way toleration
 Separation of Powers  Stood for benevolent  Propounded the idea of
despotism Sovereignty of people
Comparison with   His call for liberty
England indirectly gave
  Several writers, Economists, and editors played a role in awakening the masses.

“ Religious and Political errors have changed the universe into a valley of tears”
(Holbach)

 The writings of Adam Smith also influenced people.

Mirabeau Supported the ideas of Private Ownership and low government
interference in economics.
Wrote in favor of tax reduction, single land tax
 He saw these reforms as sufficient “to set everything right and renew the
age of Solomon”
 Turgot:
*Appointed as Controller-General of Finance of Limousin
* wanted to introduce Honesty
* He wanted to check the church
*Just Taxation Free Thought
The philosophers had undoubtedly prepared at least in men`s minds, the downfall of the old
regime.
 Financial Conditions/ Economic causes
 Wars of Louis XIV
 French Participation in the War of American Independence
 France was on the verge of bankruptcy at the assent of Louis XVI
 Finance ministers were disposed of because of their pro-people policies.
 Harsh weather  Food Insecurity and Famine

Turgot Necker Calonne

“No bankruptcy, no increase in taxes, no more borrowing” Yes
Man
 National treasure was squeezed in Calonne’s tenure in 1786
 Parlement of Paris refused to register any new taxes or loans.
King
Drafted Declaration of Rights and contented only Estate-General can subsidize called
new loans or taxes Assembl
y of
 Soldiers refused to arrest Judges of Parlements of Paris. Notables
1787
Popular demand was now to convene Estate General
 Start of the French Revolution
 The mess urged King to give way and he ordered elections of Estate-General after
the lapse of 175 years.
“ Revolution was the result of reactionary aspirations of French Aristocracy”
( Professor Salvini Goodwill )
The unfolding of mega event
 5th May 1789 Estate General Convened What is the Third Estate?
 Delegates* “Everything”
 Cahiers were prepared What has been in the
1200 Delegates  3 Votes  Deadlock politics up to now?
“Nothing”
What does it desire?
June “To become something”
 17 th June 1789 3rd Estate declared itself of National Assembly Pamphlet by Abb Sieyes
 20th June The Tennis Court Oath demanded the Constitution
 23rd June Special Royal session*
“Never to separate, and to
 Revolt started everywhere {The Great Fear} reassemble wherever
circumstances shall require, until
 Riots began in Paris  law and order worsened in France the constitution of the Kingdom
shall be established”
 July
 Amid chaos, Louis XVI ordered Military to assemble in Paris and outside Versailles
 Necker dismissed  Protests began against this decision
 Storming of Bastille (14 July 1789)

It marked the end of royal despotism in France and a new birth of Liberty.
 Louis XVI’s U-turn on Necker
 The flight from Absolute Monarchy to Constitutional Monarchy.
 August 1789
 National Assembly transformed in the National Constituent
Assembly
 Abolished feudalism
 uniform taxation
 press freedom Popular Journalism
The Rise of Emigres
Uniform system of administration
 Clergy was turned into Civil servants

 27th August Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen*
 Liberty, Equality and Fraternity emerged as the slogans of
humanity The Declaration has been described as the most
 Absence ofremarkable
Women and factslave
in therights.* Active
history of passive
the growth citizens
of democratic
and republican ideas in France, “the gospel of modern
times”.
 October
 Women March to Versailles
 Harsh weathers
Rumors of party in Palace
Royal Family moved to Paris from Versailles and was kept as de facto
Hostage.
 1790
 The rise of political parties having their own vision to navigate the revolution
Jacobins = Radicals led by Maximilien de Robespierre against King
members were Sans Culottes
 Girondins= Liberals
 Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

1791

new constitution was framed by NA*

King tried to escape Austria but was caught.
 demand of republic v/s demand of Constitutional monarchy.
 protests started and national guards were activated and protestors were
massacred.
 In the chaotic situation National Assembly dissolved itself on 30 September
1791.
The Legislative Assembly & National
Convention
 The Legislative Assembly (1791-92)*
 Clubs in France Jacobins Girondins

 Political Groups in N.Assembly Republican

The Constitutionalists Radical
Cordelier Club
 Laws vetoed by King s
 Law against Emigres
 Law restricting the perks and pensions of clergy
 20 June 1792 King was harassed by mob.
 August 9 gloomy episode leading to imprisonment of King and formation
of Provisional government by Danton as Minister of Justice.
 Factors leading to war.
 Export of the revolutionary ideas.
Emigres negative role against France
 Declaration of Pillnitz by Austria and Prussia against France.
Foreign Intervention.
 War declared on Austria in April 1792
 The national convention (1792-95) France landed
in the
 King was put up on trial and found guilty of treason. dictatorship of
Danton.
Foreign policy under NC Internal policies of NC
The enemies of liberty are our Every French 18-25 shall render
enemies military services. By 1793 ( the
nation in arms)
770000 men under arms {Carnot}
Declaration of war against all Reforms on lower scale retained
monarchs
Four corners= Rhine- the Alps, the Diversionary tactics applied
Pyrenees, the ocean
these must be boundaries of our
empire (Danton)
Outward expeditions
Reign of terror

 Replacement of Girondins with Jacobins

The committee of the Public safety
 Napolean’s Rise
 Born in 1769 in Ajjaico (Islands of Corsica).
 His infant eyes witnessed the blood since childhood
 Joined French army at the age of 17
 French Revolution broke when he was just 20.
 March to Toulon  a step in the ladder of making an empire
 Proved his mettle and sought promotions after promotions
 Brigadier General then Command of Interior
 Shattered the first coalition with his sword after conquering Italy.
He came, he saw, and he conquered.
 Defeated well established armies of Austria and Sardinia**
 Napoleon pre-supposed himself as the head of state throughout his
campaign of Italy.
 Acted as creator and destroyer of states.
 He started taking interest in political affairs too.
 He revamped the existing system in Italy**.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
The revolutionary and Napoleonic
wars 1795-1815
 The rule of Directory (1795-99)
 New constitution > executive authority to 5 directors (The Directory)
Plots and intrigues internally*
 deteriorating finances
foreign policy was entangled in war in multiple dimension
 Napoleon`s expeditions on going…
Napolean’s campaign of Austia

 March towards Austria….

 Crushed fort of mantua
 Crossed Po and Ada River 1796
 laid crushing defeat to Austria in different battles and urged to sue for
peace.
 His military successes boosted his confidence
 He signed Peace of campo Formio with Austria in 1797.
* Austria recognized French Annexation of Belgian Provinces.
* Ceded territory of 2/3 on the left bank of Rhine
* A great deal of exchange of land was witnessed
* Venetia was at the mercy of France
* Austria’s hold over northern Italy broke
Treaty of Basel with Spain

 France got its natural frontiers back which Louis XIV-XV-XVI failed to get.
 Revived glory
 Dominant position in Italy and Germany.
 Widened its territory in every dimension.
-------
 He surpassed the achievements of Louis XIV.
 Theses treaties gave death blow to the first coalition.
 Peace for France & Napoleon but foundation for future revolutions and
wars….
 With high confidence Directory decided to fight British the then Naval
Super power.
Attack on Egypt**

Turn out British from India

 At home directory was in severe crises and failed to manage public affairs.
 Napolean’s return and his Coup Detat of XVIIIth Brumaire. (9th Nov 1799).

1st Consul
 Napoleon Appointed himself as the 1 Consuls.
st
Napolean
 New constitution was framed 2nd Consul
Abb Sieyes
3rd Consul
System of highly centralized Ducos
despotism
 Napolean as first consul
 Centralized the system of Local Government.
 Secretariat, Ministry of state (central registry)
 Attempts to improve financial conditions of France
 careful collection of taxes
 severe punishments for corrupts
reforms in education  manipulated curriculam
 used PoWs for Public works
 improved infrastructure… Roads, highways, communication
 The Condordat 1802…
 to avoid the confusion between the juring and non juring clergy in
salary matters, state became nuetral in matters of religion and the
catholic church was deestablished.
( The people must have a religion and the religion must be in the hands
of government )
he realized the value of religion in maintaining social order.
Real Makers of the French Revolution.
************Peasants or Middle Class***************

Why revolution broke in France?

 Feudal system had become worn out.

 Nobles retained exemptions and privileges
 Extreme poverty
 Poor industrial growth
 Discontentment against nobility
 Work of Philosophers on France
 Enlightened Middle class
 Dilapidated economic situation
Impacts of French Revolution

 Birth of new ideas, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity