HOMEOSTASIS

Dr Onyango K
11/1/22
MNS 101
Objectives
• Define homeostasis.
• Explain the feedback mechanisms of homeostatic regulation.
• Examples of homeostatic regulations.
• Understand that dysfunctions are mainly due to failure of homeostatic
regulations.
• Describe the details of negative and positive feedback mechanisms.
• Give a note on intracellular homeostasis.
DEFINITION
• The maintenance of constancy of the internal environment of the body.
• Claude Bernard, a French physiologist, was first to introduce the concept of
milieu intérieur, which means the internal environment of the body.
• He had following remarkable observations:
1.The volume and composition of the fluid are maintained constant, independent of
the changes in the environment in which the animal lives.
2.He designated the fluid (ECF) in the body as the internal environment, to
differentiate it from the external environment of the body.
3.He suggested that the ability to regulate internal environment is the major reason
for humans and animals to live a normal life in spite of changes and challenges
imposed on them by the external environment.
4.He noted the difference between intracellular and extracellular fluid and had
proposed that the extracellular fluid is the internal environment of the body.
Homeostatic mechanisms
HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS
• Homeostasis is the stability of the internal environment.
• It is not only the equilibrium of the internal environment as a whole, but also
the balance of the composition and components of the environment and the
physiological variables that influence the environment
• Homeostasis of the composition of internal environment, especially of the body
fluids, and various other body parameters that influence the environment, is
the minimum requirement for smooth functioning of the body.
• Abnormal deviation from these homeostatic processes leads to bodily
dysfunctions.
Feedback Mechanisms of Homeostatic Regulations
• Homeostatic regulation is mainly achieved through the feedback mechanisms
that operate to safeguard a set point already set for the physiological variable.
• The stimulus for feedback control is a change in the level of the variable,
which is detected by the sensor (the receptors) that activate the feedback
system which in turn triggers a response to bring the variable back to the
normal range of the set point and restores homeostasis.
• There are two types of feedback regulations: The negative feedback and the
positive feedback.
Negative Feedback
• The negative feedback mechanism is the usual mechanism of homeostatic
regulation.
• When the variable is raised above the set point, the negative feedback
mechanism triggers processes that inhibit the formation of the variable and
when the variable is lowered below the set point, negative feedback system
withdraws the inhibition to allow production of the variable.
• Thus, the negative feedback system provides the physiological basis for
homeostatic regulation.
• Negative feedback control system requires a sensor that detects the change in
variable, a control center that receives input from the sensor and initiates
command signal, and an effector that brings in responses according to the
command signal directed from the control .
• Physiological variables sometimes require more than one homeostatic
mechanism for their regulation.
• For example, control of arterial pressure involves pressure monitoring system,
volume monitoring system, hormonal mechanisms, reflex regulation,
autonomic control, etc.
• The sensor: The sensor contains receptors that monitor the change of the
variable and provide sensory signals to the control center of the changes
detected.
• The examples are carotid sinus and aortic arch that contain baroreceptors in
their wall and detect change in pressure in their lumen.
• They send signals to the control centers located in the medullary
cardiovascular centers.
• The control center: Usually, control centers are located in the central nervous
system, especially in the brain.
• For example, centers for blood pressure regulation are located in medulla and
the hypothalamus.
• The effector: The effector is the target organ that carries out the command of
the control center to achieve an effective response.
• For example, blood vessels and heart are the effector organs for blood
pressure regulation.
• Depending on the rate of sympathetic and vagal discharges, the effector
organs change their activities to achieve the target effect.
• When the deviation is the increase in the variable above the set point, the
effector will be inhibited and inhibition continues until the variable is reduced to
the normal set point.
• Reverse process is initiated when the variable is reduced below the set point .
Positive Feedback System
• In a positive feedback system, increase in the variable triggers processes that
further increase the variable.
• Therefore, this control mechanism does not operate to provide homeostasis.
• Rather, positive feedback mechanism is a vicious cycle that terminates only
when the stimulus applied to trigger is withdrawn or the process itself is self-
terminated.
• The parturition reflex initiated by oxytocin: Towards term, when the head of the
matured fetus presses on the uterine cervix, the cervical distension sends
signal to posterior pituitary to release oxytocin.
• Oxytocin increases the excitability of myometrium and causes uterine
contraction. Contraction of uterus further pushes the fetus onto the cervix, and
cervical distension further increases oxytocin release that promotes uterine
contraction, and the vicious cycle continues till the baby is delivered.
• LH surge: This is increased luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion that leads to
ovulation.
• Normally, estrogen inhibits LH secretion. But, before ovulation, estrogen
provides positive feedback to LH secretion, which results in LH surge.
• The Hodgkin’s cycle: Sodium influx that causes upstroke (depolarization) of
nerve or muscle action potential.
• Opening of few set of sodium channel provides positive feedback for opening
of other sodium channels that results in massive sodium influx causing
depolarization
• Activation of digestive enzymes: The activation of digestive enzymes
pepsinogen and trypsinogen by pepsin and trypsin respectively.
• Enzyme cascade hypothesis of coagulation: Activation of one clotting
factor, which acts as an enzyme to activate the next clotting factor in the
coagulation cascade
Positive feedback
Examples of Homeostatic Regulations
• Important examples of homeostatic regulations are control of pH, osmolarity,
and water and electrolyte composition of the body fluids, regulation of solutes
in the blood like blood sugar, balance of body weight, etc.
• Another example is the myotatic or stretch reflex that seeks to maintain
muscle length.
Body temperature regulation:
• The temperature of the body is maintained within a narrow range of 36°C to
36.8°C.
• Increased temperature above normal is called as fever and below is called as
hypothermia.
• When temperature is above normal, the body activates controlling
mechanisms to increase heat loss through cutaneous vasodilation
• When hypothermia develops, the body responds by decreasing heat loss
through vasoconstriction and by increasing heat production through shivering.
Blood pressure regulation
• The normal systolic pressure in adult is kept constant between 100 and 140
mm Hg and diastolic pressure between 60 and 85 mm Hg.
• Sustained rise in pressure is called hypertension, and fall in pressure is called
hypotension that initiates many neural and humoral mechanisms to restore
blood pressure (for details refer “Regulation of blood pressure”.
Regulation of hormone secretion
• Secretion of many hormones such as thyroxine, cortisol, etc. is regulated
mainly by negative feedback mechanisms.
• Increase in hormone concentration in plasma inhibits their production and
decrease in concentration facilitates their production mainly by altering the
secretion of their regulating trophic hormones.
• This forms the basis of diagnosis of these hormonal disorders.
INTRACELLULAR HOMEOSTASIS
• Traditionally homeostasis (constancy of internal environment) refers to the
stability of extracellular fluid volume and composition, it is also applicable to
intracelular fluid and intracellular conditions.
• The primary objective of homeostasis is to maintain intracellular homeostasis
that promotes cell or tissue (organ) functions.
• Homeostasis is greatly affected by intracellular activities.
•
• For example, pH homeostasis, temperature homeostasis, Na+ homeostasis,
K+ homeostasis, etc. depend mainly on intracellular enzyme activities and cell
metabolism.
• Similarly, intracellular milieu is largely influenced by changes in the ECF
volume and composition.
• Homeostasis is mostly achieved by the coordinated and balanced interaction
between intracellular and extracellular environments of the body.