Network Protocols

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Network Standards
Definitions and concepts

Message ordering and reliability

Semantics and syntax

Encoding application messages

Vertical communication on the source host

Standards architectures
Standards
 Standards allow different systems to work together.
 The terms “standard” and “protocol” mean the same
thing.

Standardized
A Communication B
Network Standards
Layers Recap from Chapter 1

Broad Function Layer Layer Name

Numbe
r
Interoperability of 5 Application
application programs

Transmission across an 4 Transport

internet
3 Internet
Transmission across a 2 Data Link
single switched or wireless
1 Physical
network
Network Standards Concepts
 Network Standards
 Network standards are rules that govern the exchange of
messages between hardware or software processes on
different hosts, including messages (ordering, semantics,
and syntax), reliability, and connection orientation.
 What are ordering, semantics, and syntax?
Network Standards

Definitions and concepts

Message ordering and reliability

Semantics and syntax

Encoding application messages

Vertical communication on the source host

Standards architectures
Network Standards Concepts
 Message Order
Turn taking (think of telephone conversations)
Order of messages in an ATM withdrawal
Who must initiate communication, and so on
 Reliability
A reliable protocol both detects and corrects errors
during transmission.
Error detection alone is not enough.
Many unreliable protocols detect errors but then merely
drop incorrect messages without correcting them
Network Standards Concepts
 Message Order in HTTP
In HTTP, the client program initiates the communication
by sending an HTTP request message.
Network Standards Concepts
 Message Order in HTTP
Network Standards Concepts

 Reflection: Message Order in HTTP

The client must initiate the interaction.
Other network standards have more complex turn
taking; for instance TCP.
Human turn taking is loose and flexible.
But message order for network standards must be rigid
because computers are not intelligent.
TCP exemplifies more complex message ordering.
A Connection
 HTTP is connectionless.
Every request–response cycle is independent.
There is no connection between request/response cycle
 TCP is connection-oriented.
There is a formal opening of the connection.
Within the connection, messages are sequenced,
acknowledged, and retransmitted if necessary.
There is a formal closing of the connection.

Q: What is connection oriented? E-mail? Telephone

conversations?
Chapter 2: Network Standards
Definitions and concepts

Message ordering and reliability

Semantics and syntax

Encoding application messages

Vertical communication on the source host

Standards architectures
Network Standards Concepts
 Message Semantics
Semantics is the meaning of a message.
HTTP request message: “Please give me this file.”
HTTP response message: “Here is the file. (Or, I could not
comply for the following reason …)”
Network Standards Concepts
 Message Semantics
Network standards normally have a very limited set of
possible message meanings.
For example, HTTP requests have only a few possible
meanings.
GET: Please give me a file.
PUT: Store this file (not often used).
A few more.
General Message Organization
 Message Syntax: Message Layout
Like human grammar, but more rigid.
In general, messages may have three parts.

3 2 1
General Message Organization
 Message Syntax
The data field contains the content being delivered.
The header is everything before the data field.
The trailer is everything after the data field.
General Message Organization
 Message Syntax
The header is broken into smaller sections called
header fields.
There often is a destination address header field to
indicate where to deliver the message.
General Message Organization

Most Messages Do Not Have Trailers.

General Message Organization
Some messages do not have data fields.
Example: TCP SYN segments have only headers.
Example: Ethernet Frame

The Ethernet frame has

a header, data field, and
trailer. The header has
multiple fields.
Example: Ethernet Frame

The Ethernet data field contains the

packet that the frame is delivering.
Example: Ethernet Frame
The trailer contains the
Frame Check Sequence field for error detection.
The sender computes the value based on all bits.
The receiver redoes the calculation.
If the receiver gets a different value,
it discards the frame.
There is no error correction.
Ethernet is not reliable.
Perspective: Syntax

 Every message is a long stream of bits.

Headers and trailers are determined by bit position

TCP or UDP IP Ethernet

Header Header Header

110100010110110100010110110100010110101101000101
1010110100010110
Network Standards
Definitions and concepts

Message ordering and reliability

Semantics and syntax

Encoding application messages

Vertical communication on the source host

Standards architectures
Data Encapsulation
Protocol Data Units
 Data Encapsulation is the process in which some extra
information is added to the data item to add some features to it.
 Data
 Segment
 Packet
 Frame
 Bits
 Data Encapsulation
 The data is encapsulated on the sender’s side, starting from
the application layer to the physical layer.
 Each layer takes the encapsulated data from the previous
layer and adds some more information to encapsulate it and
some more functionalities with the data.
 These functionalities may include proper data sequencing,
error detection and control, flow control, congestion control,
routing information, etc.
Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation
Data Encapsulation
De-Encapsulation
Data De-encapsulation

 It is the reverse process of data encapsulation.

 The encapsulated information is removed from the
received data to obtain the original data.
 This process takes place at the receiver’s end.
 The data is de-encapsulated at the same layer at the
receiver’s end to the encapsulated layer at sender’s end.
 The added header and trailer information are removed from
the data in this process.
 The diagram shows how the header and footer are added
and removed from the data in the process of encapsulation
and de-encapsulation respectively.
The data is encapsulated in every layer at the sender’s side and also
de-encapsulated in the same layer at the receiver’s end of the OSI or
TCP/IP model.
 Encapsulation Process (Sender’s side)
 Step 1: The Application, Presentation, and Session layer
(OSI model), or Application layer (TCP/IP model) takes the
user data in form of data streams, encapsulates it and
forwards the data to the Transport layer.
 Step 2: Transport layer takes the data stream from upper
layers, and divide it into multiple pieces. It encapsulates the
data by adding the appropriate header to each piece, (now
data segments). The header contains the sequencing
information so that the data segments can be reassembled
at the receiver’s end.
 Step 3: The Network layer (OSI model) or Internet layer
(TCP/IP model) takes these data segments and encapsulate
them by adding an additional header to them. This data
header contains all routing information for proper delivery of
data. These are now data packets or datagrams.
 Step 4: The Data-Link layer takes the data packet from the
Network layer and encapsulate it by adding an additional
header and footer to it.
 The header contains all the switching information for the
proper delivery of the data to the appropriate hardware
components, and the trailer contains all the information
related to error detection and control.
 Step 5: The Physical layer takes the data frames from the
Data-Link layer and encapsulate them by converting them to
appropriate data signals or bits (corresponding to the
physical medium)
 De-Encapsulation Process (Receiver’s side)
 Step 1: The Physical layer takes the encapsulated data
signals or bits from the sender, and de-encapsulate it in the
form of a data frame to be forwarded to the upper layer – data
link layer.
 Step 2: The Data-Link layer takes the data frames from the
Physical layer. It de-encapsulates the data frames and checks
the frame header whether the data frame is switched to the
correct hardware or not.
 If the frame is switched to the incorrect destination, it is
discarded, else it checks the trailer information. If there is any
error in the data, a retransmission is requested, else it is de-
encapsulated and the data packet forwarded to upper layer.
 Step 3: The Network layer (OSI) or Internet layer (TCP/IP)
takes the data packet from Data-Link layer. It de-encapsulates
the data packets and checks the packet header whether the
packet is routed to the correct destination or not.
 If the packet is routed to the incorrect destination, the packet
is discarded, else it is de-encapsulated and the data segment
is forwarded to the upper layer.
 Step 4: The Transport layer takes the data segments from the
network layer and de-encapsulate it. It first checks the
segment header and then reassembles the data segments to
form data streams, and these data streams are then
forwarded to the upper layer.
 Step 5: The Application, Presentation, and Session layer (OSI
model), (Application layer in TCP/IP) takes encapsulated data
from Transport layer, de-encapsulate it, and application-
specific data is forwarded to applications.
Source
Host

The application process creates an application message for

the application process on the destination host.
In this case, the application process is a browser.
Source
Host

The application process passes the HTTP message down to

the transport layer process.
The transport process encapsulates the HTTP message in
the data field of TCP segment.
This requires adding a TCP header.
Source
Host

The transport process passes

the TCP segment down to the
internet process, which
encapsulates the segment in an
IP packet.
Source
The internet process passes the IP packet to
Host the data link process, which is Ethernet.
Ethernet adds a header and trailer.
Source The data link process passes the frame down
Host to the physical layer.
The physical layer does NOT do
encapsulation. It merely converts the bits of
the frame into signals.
Vertical Communication on the Source
Host
 The application, transport, internet, and data link
layer process do the same thing.
Create a message in all but the originating layer (in this
case, application) by encapsulation.
Then pass the message down to the next lower layer.
 The physical layer process is different.
It merely converts the bits of the frame into signals.
Network Standards
Definitions and concepts

Message ordering and reliability

Semantics and syntax

Encoding application messages

Vertical communication on the source host

Standards architectures
Major Standards Architectures
 To build a house, you do not build one room, then decide
what to do next.

 You create an architecture identifying the rooms that will be

needed and how the rooms will relate to one another in
terms of flow.

 Then you begin the design of individual rooms.

Major Standards Architectures
 In networking, standards agencies first create standards
architectures that define the categories of standards to be
developed.

 They define these categories in terms of layers.

 They then design standards for the individual categories.

Major Standards Architectures
 There are two major standards architectures.
 TCP/IP
This is the standards architecture for the Internet and many
corporate internets.
Its standards agency is the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
As we saw in Chapter 1, most of its documents are called requests
for comment (RFCs).
Some (but not all) RFCs are official Internet standards.
Major Standards Architectures
 OSI
Its two standards agency are ISO and the ITU-T.

ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a

computer standards agency.

The ITU-T is the International Telecommunications Union—

Transmission Standards Agency.

Don’t confuse ISO the organization with OSI the architecture.

Major Standards Architectures
 OSI divides standards into seven layers:

Broad Purpose OSI Layers

Application communication Application (Layer 7)
Presentation (Layer 6)
Session (Layer 5)
Internetworking Transport (Layer 4)
Network (Layer 3)
Communications within a Data Link (Layer 2)
single LAN or WAN
Physical (Layer 1)
Major Standards Architectures
 OSI divided application communication into three layers

Session (5) creates a managed session between

applications. If there is a break in communication, the
communication has only to go back to the last roll-back
point.
Presentation (6) was designed to translate between
data formats on different computers. In practice, it is
actually used as a category for file format standards,
such as jpg and mp3.

Application (7) handles other details of application

communication.
Major Standards Architectures
 TCP/IP divides standards into four layers.

Broad Purpose TCP/IP

Applications Application
Internetworking Transport
Internet
Communication within a The IETF assumes that
single LAN or WAN OSI standards will be used
at the Physical and Data
Link Layers
Summary
In this chapter, you learned:
 Data networks are systems of end devices, intermediary devices, and
the media connecting the devices. For communication to occur, these
devices must know how to communicate.
 These devices must comply with communication rules and protocols.
TCP/IP is an example of a protocol suite.
 Most protocols are created by a standards organization, such as IETF
or IEEE.
 The most widely-used networking models are OSI and TCP/IP.
 Data that passes down the stack of the OSI model is segmented into
pieces and encapsulated with addresses and other labels. The process
is reversed as the pieces are de-encapsulated and passed up the
destination protocol stack.
In this chapter, you learned:
 The OSI model describes the processes of encoding, formatting,
segmenting, and encapsulating data for transmission over the network.
 The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard protocol that has been
endorsed by the networking industry and ratified, or approved, by a
standards organization.
 The Internet Protocol Suite is a suite of protocols required for
transmitting and receiving information using the Internet.
 PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite: data,
segment, packet, frame, and bits.
 Applying models allows individuals, companies, and trade associations
to analyze current networks and plan the networks of the future.

 References:
https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/data-encapsulation-and-d
e-encapsulation-explained.html