BASIC THERMODYNAMICS

By

Dr. D K Ramesha
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering
Bangalore University, Bangalore

“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.” - MK
Gandhi
 Scheme and Syllabus

Module-1

Fundamental Concepts &

Definitions
&
Work and Heat
2
 MODULE 1

Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

Thermodynamics definition and scope, Microscopic and Macroscopic approaches. Some practical
applications of engineering thermodynamic Systems, Characteristics of system boundary and
control surface, examples.
Thermodynamic properties; definition and units, intensive and extensive properties.

Thermodynamic state, state point, state diagram, path and process, quasi-static process, cyclic and
non-cyclic processes.

Thermodynamic equilibrium; definition, mechanical equilibrium; diathermic wall, thermal

equilibrium, chemical equilibrium, Zeroth law of thermodynamics, Temperature; concepts, scales,
fixed points and measurements.

3
10 Hours
 1st Hour
Brain storming session on subject topics
Thermodynamics definition and scope, Microscopic and Macroscopic approaches. Some practical
applications of engineering thermodynamic Systems
2nd Hour
Characteristics of system boundary and control surface, examples. Thermodynamic properties;
definition and units, intensive and extensive properties.
3rd Hour
Thermodynamic state, state point, state diagram, path and process, quasi-static process, cyclic and non-cyclic
processes.
4th Hour
Thermodynamic equilibrium; definition, mechanical equilibrium; diathermic wall, thermal equilibrium,
chemical equilibrium

Zeroth law of thermodynamics,

Temperature; concepts, scales, fixed points and measurements

Problems on temperature measurement based on comparison of thermometers.

4
 Introduction

• Thermo –heat and dynamics –force

• Natural process- falling of water- heating ,cooling- compn- expn

• T D is result of constant effort to convert HEAT into WORK

• Developed in 19 century- Joule, Kelvin, Carnot later Gibbs

• What is Thermodynamics?
– Science deals with Energy & its Transformation

– Deals with Equilibrium and Feasibility of a Process

– Deals with Heat and work interactions and the property of a system

– Gives governing laws for occurrence of physical process in regard of energy transfer

– Hair grey , grow 5

 Importance of Thermodynamics

• Engineer deals with

– optimum use of men ,material, space, time, energy and matter

-Design and development of new process and improvement of existing process

Engineer must give answer to

- Proposed chemical reaction / physical process feasible

-explain the process/reaction –completion/ proceeding/range or limit

-factors govern extent of process/ reaction or equilibrium

-how energy involved/ required

-maximum efficiency of heat engine/ COP of heat pump

6
 Laws of Thermodynamics
• The Zeroth law
– deals with thermal equilibrium and
– establishes a concept of temperature
• The First law
– Conversation of energy
– Work and Heat are convertible
– Throws light on concept of internal energy.
• The Second law
– indicates the limit of converting( I E) heat into work
– introduces the principle of increase of entropy.
– Tells about Feasibility of a process.
• The Third law
– defines the absolute zero of entropy & datum of measurement of Entropy
Laws can not proved- only on experimental Results- Logical reasoning 7
 Applications
• IC Engines
• Gas Turbines
• Air Conditioning
• Gas Dynamics
• Compressors
• Power Plants etc,.

8
 Work producing and work absorbing devices:

Work producing devices Work absorbing devices

a) Steam power plants a) Cold storages
b) Nuclear power plants b) Central air conditioning and heating
plants
c) Petrol and diesel engines c) Domestic refrigerators
d) Gas turbine for aircraft propulsion and d) Room air conditioners
power generation
e) Jet propulsion engines for aircrafts e) Ice plants
f) Rocket engines f) Food freezing and freeze-drying plants

g) Fuel cells, Solar cells, thermoelectric g) Air liquefaction plants and separation
generators etc. plants
h) Thermoelectric refrigerators 9
Some practical applications:
•Steam power plant:-

10
2. I C Engines

11
3. Gas turbines:-

12
Types of Approaches/Point of View in study of TD

13
 Types of Approaches/Point of View in study of TD

• Macroscopic approach—(Macro mean big or total)-

Classical Thermodynamics
• Continuous fluid-
• Not valid if only few molecules are involved

• Microscopic approach—(Micro means small) – Statistical

Thermodynamics

• Example Pressure
• macroscopic some bars
• Microscopic due change in momentum of the molicule

14
 Macroscopic and Microscopic Point of View

Macroscopic Microscopic
Not Occurring at molecular level or Occurs at molecular level or structure of
structure of matter matter is essential
Collective effort of molecules instead of Individual effort of molecules is
single molecule considered

Characteristics
No special Assumptions required Assumptions are required

Only few co- ordinates required Many quantities must be specified

Co ordinates are Co ordinates are

a) Directly Measurable a) Measurable easily
b) Can be sense b) Cannot be sense
DKR 15
Thermodynamic System

16
 Thermodynamic System

• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for

study.
• The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
• surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the
boundary.

DKR 17
Types of System

18
 Types of System
• Closed System (Control Mass system)
• Open System (Control Volume System)
• Isolated System

DKR 19
Closed System
• Mass and Identity fixed
• Energy can cross the boundary
Examples
1. Pressure Cooker
2. Radiator
3. Tea in the kettle

DKR 20
 Open System
• Volume is fixed
• Both mass and Energy can cross the system boundary
Examples
1. Combustion Chamber
2. Turbine
3. Compressor

DKR 21
22
 Isolated System

• Both Energy and Mass cannot cross the system

boundary
• Dead State system
• Thermal equilibrium state
Example : Thermo flask
DKR 23
 Sl Control Mass Control Volume
no Closed System Control Volume

1 For non-flow Process For Flow Process

Matter does not cross boundary Matter flows continuously in and out

2 Heat and Work cross boundary Heat and Work cross control surface

3 Focus on Definite quantity of matter, Focus on Definite Volume, volume is

matter is enclosed by boundary enclosed by control surface
5 Shape of the boundary may change but Control volume need to be stationery
mass fixed
6 Refrigerator, Pressure Cooker, Gas Turbine, Air compressor

Homogeneous System- Mass is uniformly distributed throughout the system volume

Heterogeneous system- Mass is not uniformly distributed throughout the system volume

24
 Tea cup
Tea cup with led ,Pressure cooker
Earth, air Compressor
Radiator in automobile
Turbines
Carburetor , Centrifugal Pump
Universe, Thermos flask
Refrigerator,
Water Geezer,
solar water heater

25
 Concept of Continuum
• Concept of Continuum is a kind of Idealization of continuous description
of matter.
• Properties of matter is considered as continuous function of space
variables.
• It assumes that there is no empty space or Void in the matter or system.
• Solids and liquid behaves like a continuous medium because of strong
intermolecular cohesive force.
• In Gases volume is large then it is good enough to considered the
average effect of all the molecules of gas.

DKR 26
 Validity of continuum model
Factors determining the validity of continuum model

• Distance between the molecules

• Elapsed time between collisions.

Mean Free Path :Statistical average distance travelled by the molecule

between two successive collisions

DKR 27
Kundsen Number

Concept of Continuum does not hold good

DKR 28
Thermodynamic State

29
 Thermodynamic State

Conditions:
1. Uniform Value of the property throughout the
system
2. Should not change with respective time time
at least for sometime.
3. It is a point property
Definition : The condition of the system at any
instant of time defined or identified by its
DKR 30
property called as Thermodynamic State
Thermodynamic property

31
 Thermodynamic property
• Any characteristic of a system and observable Characteristics
of a system is called a property.
• One or more properties of the system to be change then it is
called as change of system
Types of properties
Intensive Property : It does not depends on mass of a system
such as Temperature , Pressure and Density etc

Extensive Property : Property depends on mass of a system such as volume,

Energy, Total mass, total volume and total momentum etc.,

DKR 32
Ratio of Extensive property to the mass of the system Specific Property v= V/m
Ratio of Extensive property to the mole number of the system Molar Property v= V/N
All Specific properties are Intensive Properties
Any Intensive property is independent of size of the system
The value of the Extensive property varies with mass

pressure , Viscosity, Surface Tension, Entropy ,Elevation, Magnetic Field, mass , Internal Energy
Potential Energy, Density , temperature, velocity, Magnetization, Eclectic charge , Kinetic Energy, Electric Charge, volume

33
 Gibb’s Phase Rule
• Number of properties required to identify the system.
Gibb′s Phase rule
F = C -Ǿ+ 2
Where
P → Number of phases
F → Number of independent properties (Degree of freedom)
Water
C → Number of component +
Water + Ice steam
Water +
ice
Ǿ= 2 , C= 1
Ǿ= 1 , C= 1 Ǿ= 3 , C= 1
Ǿ+F=C+2
Ǿ+F=C+2 Ǿ+F=C+2
2+F=1+2
1+F=1+2 3+F=1+2
F=1
F=2 F=0
Atm Pr- 100C
Xy coordinate DKR Triple Point 34
35
Energy (Internal Energy)

36
 Energy ( Internal Energy)

• Total energy possessed by all microscopic model of motion is Internal Energy

• Associated with Molecular structure and activity of molecule
• Molecule- move around-vibrate-rotate
• Translational- Vibrational- Rotational KE
• Sensible Energy- Portion of IE associated with KE of Molecule
• Higher Temp- higher the I E
• IE depends on intermolecular Forces- Strongest (Solids)- Gases
• Phase Change-
• Sufficient Energy added-overcome the intermolecular Forces- scolds and liquids turns to

liquid phase 37
 Energy ( Internal Energy)
• Gaseous phase is at higher IE level –solid and liquid phase
• I E associated with phase of the system – Latent Energy
• I E associated with bonds – Chemical/Bond energy
• Chemical Reaction- some bonds destroyed and some are formed
• Ex- Fuel + air ------- CO2+ CO+H2O+SO2
• IE is highly disordered (random motion of Molecules)
• KE and PE are organized form of energy
• A molecule possess energy – translation, Vibration, Rotational models ( could not be
evaluated through Macroscopic )
E= KE+ PE+U 38
 Energy
1. Energy is a general term - energy in transition and stored energy ( Internal Energy).

2. Energy in Transition is a path function. Energy in transit may be divided heat and work transfer.

3. Stored Energies or internal energy are

– Molecular translation

– Molecular rotation

– Electron translation

– Molecular vibration

– Electron spin

– Nuclear spin

DKR 39
Stored Energy

DKR 40
 Energy
Energy Due to

1. External Energy
a. Potential Elevation of Mass
b. Kinetic Velocity of Mass

2. Internal Energy
A. Molecular Intermolecular forces
a. Potential Molecules position
b. Kinetic Molecules Motion

B. Chemical Changes in the Molecular Composition

C. Nuclear Changes in atomic composition

41
Equilibrium

42
 Equilibrium
• Concept associated with absence of any tendency for Spontaneous changes ( Isolated
or bring to other system)
• At this state properties – uniform- only one value assigned to each
• Thermal Equilibrium: if the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.
( temp is uniform, equality in temp between Systems)
• Mechanical Equilibrium: There is no unbalanced forces/stress within itself and also
between system and surroundings.( equality in Pressure)
• Chemical Equilibrium: composition of system does not undergo any change due to
diffusion and chemical reaction and no tendency for chemical change. ( Equality in
Chemical Potential)
43
 Equilibrium

Equilibrium Criteria
Thermal Equality in Temperature
Mechanical Equality in Pressure and Forces/stress
Chemical Equality in Chemical Potential
Thermodynamic All of above

Stable Equilibrium State Always it returns original state- after is disturbed- However large
disturbance
Unstable Equilibrium Does not returns original state- after is disturbed- however
State disturbance is small
Metastable Equilibrium Always it returns original state- if subjected small disturbance-
State disturbance exceeds the certain magnitude it settles in a new state

44
Process and Path

45
 Process and Path
• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another is called a process,
the series of states through which a system passes during a process is
called the path

DKR 46
Reversible Process

47
 Reversible Process
• The process said to be reversible if the both system and surrounding are
restored to their initial states by reversing the direction of the process.
• Reversible process is always Quasi- Static process
• System has to change its sates under net pressure and temperature
is zero.
• Examples
• Extension of Spring – Force- elongation under tension- slowly relax –
back to its original length and net work transfer is zero
• Frictionless Adiabatic Compression and expansion ( Cylinder and
Piston arrangement)
48
Irreversible Process

49
 Irreversible Process

• It is actually based on II law Thermodynamics

• It is a real Process
• Example: Relative motion with Friction
• Free Expansion, ( space A Higher pressure, Space B evacuated, W=0)
• Diffusion : mixing two different fluids- two chambers –

50
 Point and Path Function
• When two properties locate a point on the graph (co-ordinate axes) then those
properties are called as point function. Examples : Pressure, température, volume
etc.

• There are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are
given by the area or so, on that graph then those properties are called as Path
function.
Examples. Heat, work etc.
Heat and work are inexact differentials

DKR 51
Quasi Static or Equilibrium Process

52
Quasi Static or equilibrium Process

DKR 53
Thermodynamic Cycle

54
 Thermodynamic Cycle

• When a number of processes in sequence bring the system back to its initial

state, then the system is said to have undergone a thermodynamic cycle.

DKR 55
Point and Path Function

56
Adiabatic wall
Diathermic wall

57
Adiabatic wall (Insulator)– Asbestos, glass wool, Cork
Diathermic wall ( Conductor)-all Metals
58
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

59
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

DKR 60
Results;
System 1 and 3 achieve Thermal Equilibrium – Diathermic wall
System 2 and 3 achieve Thermal Equilibrium – Diathermic wall
System 1 and 2 are separated by adiabatic wall so no interaction between two. But they are also in
thermal equilibrium

If a system3 is in thermal equilibrium with system 1 and system 2, then the system1 ,system 2 and
system 3 are also in thermal equilibrium with each other

When the Two bodies or systems are thermal equilibrium with third one then all three are in thermal
equilibrium

Significance
It gives concept of temperature
Also define Isotherms
If series of state can be found in thermal equilibrium with one state of another system
then locus of all these states is called isotherm
The reference temperature for measurement of temperature is Triple point ie 0.01
degree Celsius or 273.16 Kelvin DKR 61
Temperature

62
1. Temperature measures hotness and coldness of a Body
2. Temperature Microscopic view average K E of molecule
3. Classical TD property of the system
4. virtue of this difference heat transfer will happen
5. It is Thermodynamic property that determines whether or
not a system is in thermal equilibrium with other systems

63
A body is said to be at a high temperature or hot if it
shows a high level of heat intensity in it.

Similarly a body is said to be at low temperature or

cold, if it shows a low level of heat intensity in it.

Usually temperature is measured by thermometer.

Very high temperature is measured by pyrometer.
Small and precise changes in temperature can be
measured by resistance thermometers or
thermocouple. 64
Thermometric Property

65
 Thermometric Property

• The physical property of the system that changes with temperature

is called Thermometric property
Examples
1. Length of the column of liquid in capillary tube.
2. Emf in thermocouple.
3. Resistance in a electrical Wire etc..,
Thermometers : Liquid in glass thermometer, Gas Thermometer,
Resistance Thermometer, Thermocouple, Magnetic thermometer,
Pyrometer

DKR 66
 THERMOMETER THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY

1. Alcohol or mercury in glass Length

2. Electrical resistance Resistance

3. Thermocouple Electromotive force

4. Constant volume gas Pressure

5. Constant pressure gas Volume

6. Radiation (Pyrometer) Intensity of radiation

67
Methods Used for Measuring Temperature

68
 Methods Used for Measuring Temperature

1. Two Standard Fixed Points Method

(Method in use before 1954)

2 .Single Standard Fixed Point Method

(Method in use after 1954)

DKR 69
Temperature scales: Temperature is a function of resistance R, emf E, pressure P, volume V and radiation
intensity I . In establishing a temperature scale we need a relationship between the temperature and the
thermometric property.

Direct proportionality : t = Ax

Linear relation : t = ax + b

Quadratic relation : t = αx2 + βx + ϒ

Polynomial : A’ + B’x + C’x2 + D’x3 + ……..
The temperature of -2730C in Celsius scale and -4600F in case of Fahrenheit scale is called absolute zero
temperature. The temperature measured from this zero is called absolute temperature.

The absolute temperature in Celsius scale is called degree Kelvin (K),

Similarly the absolute temperature in Fahrenheit scale is called degree Rankine (R),

70
 Two Standard Fixed Points Method
(Method in use before 1954)

It uses TWO Standard Fixed Points i.e

1. Ice Point (00C or 320F or 491.670R)
2. Steam Point (1000C or 2120F or 671.670R )
Let linear variation of temperature with respect to thermometric property (X)
T = a X+ b ...........( 1)
At Ice Point T = Ti and X = Xi
Then Eq 1 Becomes Ti = a Xi + b 0 = a Xi + b.........(2)
Similarly at Steam Point T = Ts and P = Ps
Then Eq 1 Becomes Ts = a Xs + b 100 = a Xs + b ........(3)
DKR 71
Solve Equation (2) and (3) we get

a = 100/(Xs - Xi ) b= −100Xi/(Xs − Xi)

Then Equation (1) can be written as

T = (100 * X)/(Xs − Xi) + (−100Xi)/(Xs − Xi)

DKR 72
 Single Standard Fixed Point Method
(Method in use after 1954)

• It uses ONE Standard Fixed Points i.e

“Triple Point of Water”
• Triple Point of Water : Triple point of water is the state at
which ice, liquid water and water vapor coexist in equilibrium.
The temperature at which this state exists is arbitrarily assigned
the value of 273.16 K

DKR 73
T = a X…..①
At triple point
Ttp = a Xtp

a =Ttp/Xtp = 273.16/Xtp

Put the value of a in equation ①

T = (273.16/Xtp) * X
T = 273.16 (X/Xtp)

DKR 74
 Different Types of Thermometers
1. Liquid in Glass Thermometer
Thermometric Property : Length of liquid column

Mercury used for high temperature measurement

Alcohol type used for low temperature measuring including negative temperature
DKR 75
2.Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

• PV= RT
• P = Absolute Pressure
• V = Specific Volume

Constant Volume type V=C

• P1/T1= P2/T2
• T/ Ttp= P/ Ptp
• T= Ttp [P/Ptp]= 276.13 [P/Ptp]

• Constant pressure type P=C

• T= 276.13 [V/Vtp]
DKR 76
3. Thermocouple
• Used for measure temp at
particular point
• Joining of two dissimilar metals
belong thermo electric series
• Emf produced due to
temperature difference
Thermometric Property is Emf
• Criterion of Emf due to
T (E) = 273.16 (E/Etp)
difference in temp called see -
E and Etp Thermometric Property
beck effect

DKR 77
 4.Electric Resistance Thermometer
• Change in temperature leads
change in resistance of wires
which is thermometry
property

RT = R0 (1+αT+ βT2)
Rt= Resistance at 1 degree Celsius
Ro= Resistance at 0 degree Celsius

DKR 78
 International Temperature Scale
Fixed Points Standard System at 1atm Temperature
pressure
0
C K
Oxygen Point Normal Boiling Point of -182.97 90.19
Oxygen
Ice Point Melting Point of Ice 0 273.16
Steam point Normal Boiling Point of 100 373.16
Water

Sulphur Point Normal Boiling Point of 444.60 717.76

Sulphur

Silver Point Melting Point of Silver 9860.80 1233.96

Gold Point Normal freezing Point of 1063 1336.16

Gold
79
DKR
Comparison of Temperature Scale

DKR 80
DKR 81
DKR 82
Numerical Problems

83