Dr Souvik Saha

Assistant Professor
Amity Institute of Information
Technology Kolkata
Amity University Kolkata
What is a Computer?
• A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input
and processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as
output.
Advantages of Computers
• High Speed
• Accuracy
• Storage Capability
• Versatility
• Reliability
• Automation
• Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
Disadvantages of Computers
• No I.Q. - A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform
any task.
• Dependency
• Negative effect on the environment
• No Feeling
• Virus and hacking attacks
Classification of Computers
Computer's classification based on Size
As per the size, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −
• Micro Computer
• Minicomputer
• Mainframe Computer
• Supercomputer
Micro Computer
• Microcomputers, also known as personal computers (PCs), are a type
of computer designed for individual use.
• Why microcomputer ?
• Microcomputers have become an important part of modern life. They have had
a big impact on society, companies, education, and related areas.
Minicomputer
• A minicomputer is a type of computer that is smaller in size than large computers.
It possesses all the capabilities of a large computer. Hence, it is a midsize multi-
processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
• Why a Mini Computer?
• Mini computers are also known as mini PCs or small-form-factor (SFF) computers. These
have impressive computing capabilities, high performance, connectivity options, portability,
and versatility features.
Mainframe Computer
• The mainframe is very large and is an expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. The mainframe executes
many programmes concurrently and supports simultaneous execution of
programmes.
• Why a mainframe computer?
• The processing capacity of mainframes is frequently measured in MIPS (million instructions
per second) or other units. This enables them to process a large volume of transactions and
perform extensive data processing.
Supercomputer
• A supercomputer is a special type of computer that is more powerful and capable
of high-performance computing. It is specifically designed to compute complex
and intensive tasks that regular computers cannot do efficiently.
• Why Supercomputer?
• A supercomputer's processing speed is exceptional and can perform billions of calculations
per second. Multiple processors work in parallel mode to execute tasks, which makes
processing powerful.
• Supercomputers are specially built using specialised hardware like GPUs (Graphics
Processing Units) or TPUs (Tensor Processing Units), which are used in graphics rendering or
machine learning tasks.
Computer's classification based on Capacity
• As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −
• Analog Computer
• Digital computer
• Hybrid computer
Analog Computer
• A computer that uses physical means like mechanical or hydraulic
components to do the computation rather than electronic circuits is
called an analogue computer. These computers work with continuous
data and can manage physical quantities efficiently.
Digital Computer
• A digital computer is a type of computer that represents and processes
data using discrete, distinct values.
• In digital computers, data is processed using binary numbers 0 and 1.
These computers are designed to perform arithmetic calculations and
complex data processing and manipulation.
Hybrid Computer
• A hybrid computer is a type of computer system that integrates the
features and capabilities of both analogue and digital computers.
• This integration allows the hybrid computer to perform various tasks
efficiently by leveraging the strengths of both digital and analogue
technologies.
Computer's classification based on Purpose
• As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −
• Special Purpose
• General Purpose
Special Purpose Computer
• A computer that is designed and optimised for a specific task or set of
tasks is called a special purpose computer (SPC). SPCs are designed to
excel at a single or limited set of functions, frequently with a high
degree of efficiency, speed, and accuracy.
Some of the following popular SPCs are:
• Embedded Systems
• Digital Signal Processors
• Automated Teller Machines
• Medical Equipment
• Spacecraft
General Purpose Computer
• A computer that is designed to perform a wide range of tasks and
functions is called A General-Purpose Computer (GPC).
• A GPC is versatile and can be used for various purposes by running
different software and applications.
Evolution of Computer
• Difference Engine
Charles Babbage who is also known as the “Father of Modern Computer” designed
the Difference Engine in the early 1820s. Difference Engine was a mechanical
computer which is capable of performing simple calculations. it was designed to
solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.
Evolution of Computer
• Analytical Engine
Again in 1830 Charles Babbage developed another calculating machine which was
Analytical Engine. Analytical Engine was a mechanical computer that used punch
cards as input. It was capable of performing or solving any mathematical problem
and storing information as a permanent memory (storage).
Tabulating Machine
• An american statistician invented this machine in the year 1890. Tabulating
Machine was a mechanical tabulator that was based on punch cards. It was
capable of tabulating statistics and record or sort data or information.
Differential Analyzer
• It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was
an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to
switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few
minutes.
Popular First-Generation Computers (1946-1956)
• The timeline for the first-generation computers was 1940 to 1956.
• The first-generation computers were developed using vacuum tube or thermionic
valve machine.
• These computers were consuming lot of electricity because of vacuum tubes and
other electronic devices and generate lot of heat.
• These were bigger in size and more expensive.
• Examples − ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
• The timeline for the second-generation computers was 1956 to 1963.
• Transistors were used to develop.
• In comparison to the first-generation, second-generation computers were small in size.
• Electricity consumption was low and produces less heat.
• Magnetic core memory was used.
• Examples − UNIVAC, IBM 1401, IBM 7090.
Third Generation Computers (1963-1971)
• The timeline for the third-generation computers was 1963 to 1971.
• Integrated Circuit (IC) was used to develop.
• In comparison to the second generation, third generation computers were small in
size.
• Computation power was higher as compared to second generation computers.
• The third-generation computer consumed less power and also generated less heat.
Fourth Generation Computers (1972-2010)
• The timeline for the fourth-generation computers was 1972 to 2010.
• Microprocessor technology was used to develop.
• These were surprising in terms of size and computing power.
• Portable computers.
• Very less power consuming and affordable.
• Semiconductor memory such as RAM, ROM were used which makes computation faster.
Fifth Generation Computers (2010 – Till Date)
• The timeline for the fifth-generation computers is form 2010 to till date.
• These computers are based on artificial intelligence, Ultra Large-Scale Integration
(ULSI), Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing technology.
• Very fast and multiple tasks could be performed simultaneously.
• These are smaller in size as compared to fourth generation computers.
• Consumes very low power.
Characteristics of Computer System
Components of a Computer
Input devices
A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter
commands and data.
• Keyboards, mouse, scanners, and microphones are numerous examples of input
devices.
Central
Processing Unit
• A computer machine's
"brain" is its central
processing unit (CPU).
• It executes the calculations
and commands required
for functioning of the
computer device.
Functions of the CPU
The key functions of a CPU are as follows −
• The CPU performs arithmetic and logic operations.
• It directs the operation of the processor.
• It directs Input and output units that how to respond to the instructions that
have been communicated to the processor.
• A CPU contains registers which are considered small storage locations within
the CPU to hold data temporarily during execution of a program.
• A CPU executes instructions by fetching them from memory, decodes them,
and then executes them.
Central
Processing Unit
Components
Components of CPU
• The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and decoding
instructions from memory. The remaining part of the CPU receives and executes these
instructions from the control unit.
• The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU part. The
ALU operates addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and other logical and
mathematical processes. These operations are carried out using binary logic, which limits
operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
• Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within the CPU.
They are utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU momentarily.
• The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall performance. The
clock speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what number of commands the
integral processing unit can process in a second.
Control Unit
• As its name implies, a control unit acts as the "brain" of the CPU.
• It executes instructions and manages the flow of data inside the CPU to perform
the tasks specified by a computer program.
• It plays a pivotal role in the fetch-decode-execute cycle, which is a fundamental
process by which a CPU runs program instructions.
Functions of Control Unit
• Instruction Execution
• Control Flow Management
• Exception Handling − The system effectively manages exceptions and
interruptions, including hardware failures, system calls, and external events, by
appropriately diverting the control flow of the central processing unit (CPU) to the
planned procedure for managing such exceptions.
• Pipeline Control
• Synchronization
Register

• A register refers to a small, high-speed storage area within the CPU of a

computer.
• Registers are used to temporarily hold data, instructions, or addresses that are
currently being used or processed by the CPU.
Memory Unit
• A memory is a hardware component which is used to store and access
the data whenever required.
• Majorly; computer memory is categorised into two parts Primary
Memory (RAM) and Secondary Memory (Hard Disk).
• RAM is used for short-term, fast data access and is essential for active
program execution. On the other hand, storage or secondary memory
provides permanent data storage.
Functions of memory
Primary Memory
• RAM is also known as primary or temporary memory; it is a type of volatile
memory used for temporarily storing data.
• The contents inside the RAM are erased when the computer’s power gets off
or restarted.
• RAM is actively used for program or instruction execution.
• Once we start the computer; system necessary files, programs and operating
system files are loaded into the RAM for the smooth running of the computer.
• The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and the
faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly.
Secondary Memory (Hard Drives, SSDs, Flash Drives, etc.)
• Storage devices are used to store the data permanently, even when the
computer is powered off.
• They are non-volatile; the data remains intact even when the power is
turned off or the system restarts.
• The most popular and commonly used storage devices are Hard disks
(HDs), Solid-State Drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, and optical disks
(e.g., DVDs), pen drives.
• The data storage capacity of these devices in gigabytes (GB) to terabytes
(TB) and more, depending on the type and size of the storage device.
Unit & Description
• Bit (Binary Digit)
• A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.
• Nibble
• A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
• Byte
• A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a
data item or a character.
• Word
• A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a
unit, which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
• Kilobyte (KB)
• 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
• Megabyte (MB)
• 1 MB = 1024 KB
• GigaByte (GB)
• 1 GB = 1024 MB
• TeraByte (TB)
• 1 TB = 1024 GB
• PetaByte (PB)
• 1 PB = 1024 TB
Output Devices
• Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to
show or send data from the pc to the user or any other device.
• Speakers, projectors, printers, and monitors are a few examples of output devices.
 Hardware
All of a computer's physical parts are referred
to as its hardware, which is abbreviated as
HW. This implies that hardware can refer to
any component that can be viewed or
touched. Hardware is required to build a
computer and run the software.
1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse
Motherboard
Software
• Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a
set of programs that enables the hardware to
perform a specific task. All the programs that run
the computer are software.
• The software can be of four types:
- System software
- Application software
- Open-Source software
- Utility software
System Software
• The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn
on the computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their
functioning.
• Software is required to convert all human instructions into machine
understandable instructions. And this is exactly what system software does.
• Based on its function, system software is of three types −
• Operating System
• Language Processor
• Device Drivers
Operating System
• Generally, system software is responsible for functioning of all
hardware parts and their interoperability to carry out tasks successfully
is called operating system (OS).
• OS is the first software to be loaded into computer memory when the
computer is switched on and this is called booting.
• OS manages a computer's basic functions like storing data in memory,
retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on
priority, etc.
Operating System Revisited
• An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and hardware. It is
responsible for the execution of all the processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management,
File Management and many other tasks.
• The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can
execute programs in convenient and efficient manner.
Language Processor
• An important function of system software is to convert all user
instructions into machine understandable language.
• Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++,
etc. is called source code. Set of instructions in machine readable form
is called object code or machine code. System software that converts
source code to object code is called language processor.
Device Drivers
• System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific
device on computer is called device driver.
• Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs
to be attached externally to the system has a specific driver associated
with it.
• When you attach a new device, you need to install its driver so that the
OS knows how it needs to be managed.
Application Software
• Application software is a set of programs
designed to perform a specific task.
• A computer can run without application
software.
• Application software can be easily installed or
uninstalled as required.
• It can be a single program or a collection of
small programs.
• Examples:
Word Processing Software (MS Word,
WordPad, Notepad)
Spreadsheet Software (Microsoft Excel)
Multimedia Software (VLC player, Window
Media Player)
Utility Software

• Provides various utilities to perform specific tasks, such as −

• File Compression and Extraction − Examples are WinZip, 7-Zip, and
WinRAR.
• Backup and Recovery − Examples are Acronis True Image and Time Machine.
• Disk Cleanup and Optimization − Examples are CCleaner and Disk Cleanup
(Windows).
Open-Source Software
• Software whose source code is freely distributed with a license to study, change
and further distributed to anyone for any purpose is called open-source software.
• Open-source software is generally a team effort where dedicated programmers
improve upon the source code and share the changes within the community.
• Open-source software provides these advantages to the users due to its thriving
communities −
• Security
• Affordability
• Transparent
• Interoperable on multiple platforms
• Flexible due to customizations
Computer Memory
Computer Memory (RAM)
• It is a component of a computer system that allows
storing the data for the short-term.
• In technical terms, memory is known as RAM, which
stands for Random Access Memory.
• RAM stores the data and information temporarily.
• When a user clicks on any application, or running a
program, or access a document, then the computer
system stores the data in Random Access Memory.
• RAM is also referred to as volatile memory because it
looses the data when the system turns off.
Read Only
Memory (ROM)
• It is a type of computer memory that
stores data permanently, even when
the computer is turned off or
restarted.
• Unlike RAM, ROM retains its data
over time.
• ROM is essential for storing critical
system instructions, and other data
needed for booting up and
initializing the computer's hardware
and software components.
Secondary Memory
• Primary memory is volatile and has limited capacity.
• So, it is important to have another form of memory that has a larger storage
capacity and from which data and programs are not lost when the computer is
turned off.
• Such a type of memory is called secondary memory.
• In secondary memory, programs and data are stored. It is also called auxiliary
memory.
• It is different from primary memory as it is not directly accessible through the
CPU and is non-volatile.
• Secondary or external storage devices have a much larger storage capacity, and
the cost of secondary memory is less as compared to primary memory.
Use of Secondary Memory
• Permanent storage: As we know that primary memory stores data
only when the power supply is on, it loses data when the power is off.
So, we need a secondary memory to stores data permanently even if
the power supply is off.

• Large Storage: Secondary memory provides large storage space so

that we can store large data like videos, images, audios, files, etc.
permanently.

• Portable: Some secondary devices are removable. So, we can easily

store or transfer data from one computer or device to another.
Types of Secondary Memory
• In secondary memory, a fixed storage is an internal media device that is used to
store data in a computer system.
• Fixed storage is generally known as fixed disk drives or hard drives.
• Generally, the data of the computer system is stored in a built-in fixed storage
device.
• Fixed storage does not mean that you can not remove them from the computer
system, you can remove the fixed storage device for repairing, for the upgrade, or
for maintenance, etc. with the help of an expert or engineer.
Fixed Storage
• Internal flash memory (rare)

• SSD (Solid-State disk)

• Hard disk drives (HDD)

Difference between SSD and HDD
Removable Storage
• In secondary memory, removable storage is an external media device that is used
to store data in a computer system.
• Removable storage is generally known as disks drives or external drives.
• It is a storage device that can be inserted or removed from the computer according
to our requirements.
• We can easily remove them from the computer system while the computer system
is running.
• Removable storage devices are portable so we can easily transfer data from one
computer to another.
Types of Removable Storage
• USB memory sticks
• External hard drives
• Optical discs (like CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, etc.)
• Memory cards
• Floppy disks
• Magnetic tapes
Continued…
• Floppy Disk: A floppy disk consists of a magnetic
disc in a square plastic case. It is used to store data
and to transfer data from one device to another device.

• Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is a medium for

magnetic storage made of a thin, magnetizable coating
on a long, narrow strip of plastic film.
Continued…
• CD (Compact Disk) – Audio and small amounts of data
• DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) – Standard definition movies and data
• Blu-Ray – HD video and large amounts of data
Cache Memory
• Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory.
• The cache is a smaller and faster memory that stores copies of the data
from frequently used main memory locations.
• There are various different independent caches in a CPU, which store
instructions and data.
• The most important use of cache memory is that it is used to reduce
the average time to access data from the main memory.
Characteristics of Cache Memory
• Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer
between RAM and the CPU.
• Cache Memory holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they
are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
• Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but more
economical than CPU registers.
• Cache Memory is used to speed up and synchronize with a high-speed
CPU.
Continued…
Flash Memory
• Flash memory is secondary memory.
• It is not volatile which means it persists the data even if there is not an electrical
supply provided.
• This flash memory works on the principle of EEPROM.
• EEPROM stands for Electrical Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.
• ROM operation can only one time write, and many times read, and we can’t erase
it.
• But Flash Memory can be erased multiple times and update the data or program
integrated into it.
• So, it gives flexibility to the updating of the program, but ROM has no such type
of feature.
Features of Flash Memory
• Non-volatile: There is no loss of date when there is no electricity supply.
• Solid-State: It is SS technology, so it is faster than HDD type storage.
• Fast access times: It supports solid-state technology, so it has faster access time.
• Large storage capacity: Flash memory devices can store large amounts of data,
from a few GB (Gigabytes) to several TB(Terabytes).
• Low power consumption: It is not based on header like HDD so no mechanical
components in flash memory, so it uses less amount of electricity from read the
data.
• Flexibility towards Erase and write operations: Flash memory can be erased
electrically multiple times and read multiple times so flexibility towards
read/write operation is more in flash memory.
Applications of Flash Memory
• Used in SSDs: Flash memory is used in SSDs to increase the speed of
read/write of operations.
• Embedded systems: Flash memory is used in embedded systems.
Examples: digital cameras, camcorders, MP3 players etc.
• Smartphones and tablets: Flash memory is used in smartphones and
tablets.
• USB drives: Flash memory is commonly used in USB drives.
Flash Memory (Continued…)
Memory Access Types
• Sequential Access:-
In this method, the memory is accessed in a specific linear sequential manner. This
contrasts with random access memory (RAM) where data can be accessed in any order.

Applications of this sequential memory access: Magnetic tapes, magnetic disk and optical
memories.
Memory Access Types (Continued…)
• Direct Memory Access: Direct memory access (DMA) is a method that allows an
input/output (I/O) device to send or receive data directly to or from the main
memory, bypassing the CPU to speed up memory operations.
• For example, if a computer wants to send data from system memory to a printer, it
issues a DMA transfer request to the printer's DMA controller. The printer's DMA
controller then begins the data transfer operation, reading data from system
memory at one end and sending it to the printer.