Linear Variable
Differential
Transducer
Sensors
• Sensors to measure motion are important for engineers
• Simple movement causes a displacement in the body
affected by it
• Motion can be translational or rotational
• Translational displacement transducers are instruments
that measure the motion of a body in a straight line
between two points
• They can also be used as a secondary component in
measurement systems where some other physical quantity
such as pressure, force, acceleration or temperature is
translated into a translational motion by the primary
measurement transducer
Translational sensors
• Many different translational displacement
transducers exist
• Resistive potentiometer
• LVDT (Linear variable differential transducer)
• Variable capacitance and inductance transducers
• Strain gages
• Piezoelectric transducers
• Nozzle flappers etc
Resistive potentiometers
• Here Vo/Vs = AC/AB
• The body whose motion is being measured is connected to the sliding
element of the potentiometer so that translational motion of the body
causes a motion of equal magnitude of the slider along the resistance
element and a corresponding change in output voltage
• Three different types of potentiometers exist
• Wire wound
• Carbon film
• Plastic film
Resistive potentiometers
Wires of
nickel-chromium (nichrome),
nickel-copper (constantan),
silver-palladium or some other precious metals are used as resistive
elements, their diameters varying between 25 and 50 µm.
Wire wound
potentiometer
• Resolution is controlled by the coil
spacing
• Displacements smaller than the coil
spacing will not be captured properly
R= 〖 360×10 〗 ^(-3)/πnD
Carbon film
potentiometer
Problems with
potentiometers
• Operational problems of potentiometers occur at the point of contact between the
sliding element and the resistance track
• Most common problem is dirt under the slider which increases resistance and thereby
gives a false output voltage reading or even loss of output
• High speed motion of slider can also cause contact to bounce giving intermittent output
• Friction is also a problem
• Life and measurement resolution of carbon film and plastic film potentiometers is higher
but wire wound have lower temperature coefficient and hence they exhibit less
variation in characteristics as a function of environmental conditions
• Errors in measurement can also come about from the instrument measuring the
resistance
Linear variable differential transducer / transformer
• What is a transformer?
• A transformer is an electrical apparatus
designed to convert alternating current from
one voltage to another. It can be designed to
"step up" or "step down" voltages and works on
the magnetic induction principle
Core type transformer ensures
that flux linkage is good
A changing magnetic field through a coil
of wire therefore must induce an emf in the
coil which in turn causes current to flow.
Right hand rule
Principle of electro-magnetic induction used in
transformer
• EMF is induced in the conductor whenever the magnetic
flux linked with the coil changes or the moving conductor
cuts the Magnetic flux.
• This phenomenon is known as Electromagnetic Induction
and this induced EMF causes a flow of current in the
closed circuit known as the Induced current.
The number of windings in the primary and
secondary winding decide if the voltage will
be stepped up or stepped down
Why are transformer cores laminated?
In Solid blocks eddy current is of higher Lamination increases electrical resistivity
magnitude. and lowers the eddy current magnitude
This causes loss of energy by Joule heating
LVDT’s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WYX0S-dXCSM
Construction of LVDT
Advantages of LVDT
• No Physical Contact Between the Core and the
Coils
• Long Operating Life
• Theoretically Infinite Resolution
• Easy Modification
• Low Power Consumption
• High Accuracy
• Fast Response
The object whose
translational displacement
is to be measured is
attached physically to the
central iron core of the
transformer so that all
motions of the body are
transferred to the core
ΔV = V1-V2, When V1> V2,
the ΔV = +ve
When V1 < V2,
ΔV = -ve
This way you can find out the direction of motion
Why Silicon grade steels for transformers?
• Silicon steel is a soft magnetic material that is used in electrical power
transformers, motors and generators.
• It has a high silicon content of about 3.2 mass %, which increases
the electrical resistivity of iron and, therefore, reduces
eddy current losses.
• Grain-oriented silicon steel that is used for non-rotating applications,
i.e. transformers, is characterised by a strong preferred
crystallographic orientation.
• In iron the easiest directions of magnetisation are the <001> crystal
directions.
• In grain-oriented silicon steel the Goss orientation, i.e. the {110}<001>
orientation , is technologically realised to minimise magnetic losses in
electrical transformers.
Electrical grade steel
• Electrical steel
• silicon electrical steel,
• silicon steel,
• transformer steel
• This is an iron alloy tailored to produce
specific magnetic properties: small hysteresis
area resulting in low power loss per cycle,
low core loss, and high permeability
• Electrical steel is usually manufactured in
cold-rolled strips less than 2 mm thick. These
strips are cut to shape to make laminations
which are stacked together to form the
laminated cores of transformers,
Silicon up to 6.5 wt.%
Electrical grade steel
• Silicon increases the electrical resistivity of iron by a factor of
about 5; this change decreases the induced eddy currents and
narrows the hysteresis loop of the material, thus lowering the
core loss by about three times compared to conventional steel
• Grain-oriented electrical steel usually has a silicon level of
3% (Si:11Fe).
• It is processed in such a way that the optimal properties are
developed in the rolling direction, due to a tight control of the
crystal orientation relative to the sheet.
• The magnetic flux density is increased by 30% in the coil
rolling direction,
• It is used for the cores of power and distribution transformers,
cold-rolled grain-oriented steel is often abbreviated to CRGO.
