Chapter Two

Digital Image
Fundamentals

11/11/2024 1
 DIP
Signal processing
 I t is a discipline in electrical engineering field.
 deals with analysis and processing of analog and
digital signals
 also deals with storing , filtering , and other
operations on signals.
 These signals include transmission signals , sound or
voice signals , image signals , and other signals e.t.c.

 Out of all these signals , the field that deals with

the type of signals for which the input is an image
Analog Image Processing And Digital
Image Processing.
 Analog image processing is done on analog
signals.
 Analog signals have continuous electrical
signals.
 It includes processing on two dimensional analog
signals.
 They include such things as photographs, paintings,
TV images, and all of our medical images recorded on
film or displayed on various display devices, like
computer monitors.
 It is generally continuous and not broken into many
small individual pieces.
 The digital image processing deals with
developing a digital system that performs operations
on an digital image.
 Digital signals have non-continuous electrical signals.
 Digital images are recorded as many numbers.
DIP
 WHAT IS AN IMAGE?

 Image is a 2D projection of a 3D object.

 It is defined by the mathematical function f(x,y)
where x and y are the two co-ordinates horizontally
and vertically and f is the intensitey or the gray level
of image at that level.
 The value of f(x,y) at any point is gives the pixel
value at that point of an image.
 A digital image is composed of a finite number of
elements, each of which has a particular location and
value.
 These elements are referred to as picture elements,
image elements, pels, and pixels.
 Pixel is the term most widely used to denote the
elements of a digital image.
The general aim of any image acquisition is to
transform an real-world image into an array of
numerical data which could be later manipulated on a
computer.
Image acquisition is achieved by suitable cameras. We
use different cameras for different applications.
If we need an X-ray image, we use a camera that is
sensitive to X-rays.
 If we want an infrared image, we use cameras that are
sensitive to infrared radiation.
For normal images (family pictures, etc.), we use
cameras that are sensitive to the visual
spectrum.
 Visual Spectrum
 The visible light spectrum is the segment of the
electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can
view.
More simply, this range of wavelengths is called
visible light. Typically, the human eye can detect
wavelengths from 380 to 700 nanometers.
what human see what
computer see
 IMAGE

example of digital image

But actually , this image is nothing but a two
dimensional array of numbers ranging between 0
and 255.
128 230 123
232 123 321
123 77 89
80 255 255
 IMAGE – DIGITAL
IMAGE
 An image is a two-dimensional function f(x,y), where
x and y are the spatial (plane) coordinates, and
the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates
(x,y) is called the intensity of the image at that level.
 If x,y and the amplitude values of f are finite and
discrete quantities, we call the image a digital
image.
 A digital image is composed of a finite number of
elements called pixels, each of which has a particular
location and value.
 Digital Image is an image or picture represented
digitally, specifically called pixels.
 Digital Image Processing (or in short DIP) is the
technology of manipulating these groups of bits( or
pixels) to enhance the quality of the image or create
different perspectives or to extract information from
 Relationship Between A Digital
Image And A Signal
 If the image is a two dimensional array then what
does it have to do with a signal?
 Signal: In physical world, It can be measured
through its dimensions and time over space. A
signal is a mathematical function, and it conveys
(contain) some information.
 A signal can be one dimensional or two dimensional
or higher dimensional signal. One dimensional signal
is a signal that is measured over time. E.g. is a voice
signal.
 The two dimensional signals are those
that are measured over some other physical
quantities. E.g. is a digital image.
 CONT’D…
 Relationship: Since anything that conveys
information or broadcast a message in physical
world between two observers is a signal.
 That includes speech or (human voice) or an image
as a signal.
 Since when we speak , our voice is converted to a
sound wave/signal and transformed with respect to
the time to person we are speaking to.
 Digital camera works, as while acquiring an image
from a digital camera involves transfer of a signal
from one part of the system to the other.
 Basic Concept Of Image

Dimension:-
channel
pixel
 Basic Concept Of Image
Dimensions of image:-
Image dimensions have the length and width of a
digital image.
It does not have depth.
 An image is only of 2-dimensional that is why an
image is defined as a 2-dimensional signal.
Any object which has length and height comes under
2-dimension signal. It has two independent variables.
F (x, y) = Object
 Basic Concept Of Image
Channel of image
It is color of images. A digital color image is formed by
the combination of 3 color channels e.g.
Red/Green/Blue.
In other words, each 2D color image can be
represented as a combination of 3 separate grayscale
images, each with information about a separate color
code.
Images are usually represented as Height x Width x
#Channels where #Channels is 3 for RGB images and
1 for grayscale images.
Width x Height x #Channels, but the third dimension is
the “channels.”
 Basic Concept Of Image
An RGB image has three channels.
 The red channel is an array of values that specifies
the intensity of red for each pixel in the image.
The green and blue channels similarly specify the
intensity of green and blue, respectively, for each
pixel.
When the three channels are combined, you get a
full color image.
 Basic Concept Of Image
Pixel:-
Pixels are arranged in a 2-dimensional grid, represented
using squares.
 Each pixel is a sample of an original image,
The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems,
each pixel has typically three or four components such
as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and
black.
The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix
("pictures") and el (for "element").
what is resolution and what is the its relation
with pixel?
how we calculate total image pixel?
Basic Pixels Relationship
Cont’d…
Connectivity And
Adjacency
We want to know how the pixels are related to
each other.
Two pixels that are neighbour and have the
same gray level are adjacent.
Adjacency means next to you(neighbour pixel and
have same Gray level).

3 types of Adjacency:
a) 4-adjacency
 Two pixels p & q with values from V are 4-
adjacent, if q is in the set of N4(p).
C) m-adjacency (mixed adjacency)
 two pixels p & q with values from V are m-
adjacent if:
i. Q is in n 4 (p), or

ii. Q is in n d (p) and the set n 4 (p) Ʌ n 4 (q)

has no pixels whose values are from V. Or it
means no common pixel or empty set.
 Is a modification of 8-adjacency.
 Useful to eliminate and solve the
ambiguities (such as multiple path connectivity
to move in the pixels ) that often arise when 8-
adjacency is used.
Examples: Adjacency
and Path
V = {1, 2}
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2
0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1
 Examples: Adjacency and
Path
V = {1, 2}

The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3):

The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
i)(1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
ii)(1,3), (2,2), (3,3)
 Connectivity
Connectivity used for:-
Connectivity between pixels is a fundamental concept
that simplifies the definition of numerous digital image
concepts, such as region and boundaries.
To establish if two pixels are connected, it must be
determined if they are neighbours and their Gray levels
satisfy a specified criterion of similarity(say if their
Gray levels are equal).
For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are
connected to p, is a connected component of S.
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two
pixels p & q are said to be connected in S, if there
exists a path between them consisting entirely of
pixels in S.
 Region
A region in an image is a group of connected pixels
with similar properties.
Let R be a Subset of pixels in an image. We call R a
region of the image if R is a Connected Set.
 Boundary
Boundary tracing, also known as contour tracing, of
a binary digital region can be thought of as
a segmentation technique that identifies
the boundary pixels of the digital region.
Boundary tracing is an important first step in the
analysis of that region.
 Boundary also called border or contour or
region R is the set of point that are adjacent
to points in the complement of R. Outer or
inner
Digital Image
Representation
Image can be define as 2D signal that varies over
spatial coordination X and Y that repersent
mathematically writen as f(x,y).
generally image is
represent f(x,y).
The value of the
function f(x,y)at every
point indexed by a row
and column is called
grey value or intensity
os the image where M
and N is column and
Row
 Resolution
it is an important characteristic of an imaging
system.
it is the ability of imaging system to produce the
smallest discernable details .
 the smallest size object clearly and differentiate in
form the neighboring small objects that are
present in the image.
the number of row in digital image is called
vertical resolution
the number of column in digital image is called
horizontal resolution
Image resolution depend on two factor
optical resolution of the lens
spatial resolution a useful way to define resolution
is the smallest number of line pairs per unit
distance.
Spatial resolution also depends on two
parameters
number of pixel of the image
number of bits necessary for adequate intensity
resolution, referred to as bit depth
The number of bits necessary to encode the
pixel is called bit depth. bit depth is a power
of two :it is written as power of 2.
so the total number of bits necessary to
 Distance Measure
If we have 3 pixels: p,q,z:
p with (x,y)
q with (s,t)
z with (v,w)
Then: z

D(p,q) = 0 iff p = q
D(p,q) = D(q,p)
D(p,z) ≤ D(p,q) + D(q,z) p q

 Euclidean distance between p and q: De(p,q)

= [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

 D4 distance: D4(p,q) = |x-s| + |y-t|

 Cont’d…
 D8 distance: D8(p,q) = max (|x-s| , |y-t|)
 D4 and D8 distances between p and q are
independent of any paths that might exist between
the points.
For m-adjacency, Dm distance between two points is
defined as the shortest m-path between the points.
 Digital Image
Representation
The most important are the spatial representation
and wave number representation.
spatial representation
The spatial representation is contain pixel
Computers cannot handle continuous images but
only arrays of digital numbers.
 it is required to represent images as two-
dimensional arrays of points.
A point on the 2-D grid is called a pixel or pel.
 A pixel represents the irradiance at the
corresponding grid position.
The pixels are located on a rectangular grid.
 Digital Image
Representation
 A point on the 2-D grid is called a pixel or pel.
Representation of digital images by arrays of
discrete points on a rectangular grid: a 2-D image
 Digital Image
Representation
In the above picture, there may be thousands of
pixels, that together make up this image.
 We will zoom that image to the extent that we
are able to see some pixels division
 Digital Image
Representation ...
How many pixels are
sufficient?
Digital images consist of
pixels.
 On a square grid, each pixel
represents a square region of
the image.
its same image with a 3 × 4,
b 12 × 16, c 48 × 64, and d
192 × 256 pixels.
If the image contains
sufficient pixels, it appears to
be continuous.
 Digital Image
Acquision Process
 Before any video or image processing can commence
an image must be captured by a camera and
converted into a manageable entity.
 This is the process known as image acquisition
 The image acquisition process consists of three steps;
• Energy reflected from the object of inters
• An optical system which focuses the energy
• A sensor which measures the amount of energy.
 Digital Image
Acquisition Process
Energy:-
In order to capture an
image a camera requires
some sort of measurable
energy.
The energy of interest in
this context is light or more
generally electromagnetic
waves(EM).
An EM wave can have
different wavelengths (or
different energy levels or
different frequencies).
 Cont...
The range from approximately 400-700 nm (nm =
nanometer = 10-9) is denoted the visual spectrum.
 The EM waves within this range are those your eye
(and most cameras) can detect.
This means that the light from the sun (or a lamp) in
principle is the same as the signal used for transmitting
TV, radio or for mobile phones etc.
 The Optical System
 The light reflected from the object now has to be
captured by the camera.
 If a material sensitive to the reflected light is placed
close to the object, an image of the object will be
captured.
 Cont...
 One of the main ingredients in the optical system is
the lens.
 A lens is basically a piece of glass which focuses the
incoming light onto the sensor
 A high number of light rays with slightly different
incident angles collide with each point on the object’s
surface and some of these are reflected toward the
optics.
 This means that an image of the object is formed to
the right of the lens and it is this image the camera
captures by placing a sensor at exactly this position.
 The Image Sensor
 The light reflected from the object of interest is focused
by some optics and now needs to be recorded by the
camera.

 For this purpose an image sensor is used. An image

sensor consists of a 2D array of cells. Each of these cells
is denoted a pixel and is capable of measuring the
amount of incident light and convert that into a voltage,
which in turn is converted into a digital number.
 A Simple Image Formation
Model
We shall denote images as a 2D function f(x,y).

The amplitude or value of f at spatial coordinates

(x,y) is a positive scalar quantity whose physical
meaning is determined by the source of the image.
f(x,y) must be nonzero and finite; that is,

0 < f(x,y) < ∞

 A Simple Image
Formation Model
 The function f(x,y) maybe characterized by two
components:
 1. The amount of source illumination on the scene
viewed, and
 2. The amount of illumination reflected by the
objects in the scene.
 These are called the illumination and reflectance,
and denoted by i(x,y) & r(x,y), respectively.
 The two functions are combined as f(x,y).
 Need Of Sampling And
Quantization In DIP
Mostly the output of image sensors is in the form of
Analog signal. Now the problem is that we
cannot apply digital image processing & its
techniques on analog signals.
This is due to the fact that we cannot store the
output of image sensors which are in the form of
analog signals b/c it requires infinite memory to
store a signal that can have infinite values.
So, we have to convert this analog signal into digital
signal.
To create a digital image, we need to convert the
continuous data into digital form.
This conversion from analog to digital involves two
processes:
Sampling
Quantization.
Sampling And
Quantization In DIP
 Sampling And
Quantization In DIP

Generating a digital image. a) Continuous

image. b) A scan line from A to B in the continuous
image. Used to illustrate the concepts of sampling
and quantization. c) Sampling and quantization. d)
Sampling And Quantization
In DIP

a, Continuous image projected onto a

sensor array b. Result of image
sampling and quantization
 Diff erence B/N Sampling
And Quantization
Sampling is done prior to the quantization process.
Quantization: reduce the number of values required to
be stored.
Quantization: mapping a larger set of values to a
smaller set. i.e. Rounding the numbers.
Digitization: means numbers have to be discrete. i.e. 20
Digitizing the coordinate values is called sampling.
Digitizing the amplitude value or intensity of the
brightness values is called quantization.

In the sampling process, a single amplitude value is

selected from the time interval to represent it while, in
quantization, the values representing the time intervals
 Representation Of
Diff erent Image Type‘s
The binary image
The binary image as it name states, contain only
two pixel values. 0 and 1.
Here 0 refers to black color and 1 refers to white
color. It is also known as Monochrome.
Black and white image:
The resulting image that is formed hence consist of
only black and white color and thus can also be
called as Black and White image.
 Representation Of
Diff erent Image Type‘s
8 bit color format:-
 It is one of the most famous image format. It has
256 different shades of colors in it. It is
commonly known as Grayscale image.

 The range of the colors in 8 bit vary from 0-255.

Where 0 stands for black, and 255 stands for
white, and 127 stands for gray color.

 This format was used initially by early models of

the operating systems UNIX and the early color
Macintoshes.
 Representation Of
Diff erent Image Type‘s
No gray level
One of the interesting this about this binary image that
there is no gray level in it. Only two colors that are
black and white are found in it
Format
Binary images have a format of PBM ( Portable bit map
)
16 bit color format:-
It is a color image format. It has 65,536 different colors
in it. It is also known as High color format.
A 16 bit format is actually divided into three further
formats which are Red , Green and Blue. The famous
(RGB) format.
Representation Of
Diff erent Image Type‘s
24 bit color format:-
It is also known as true color format.
 Like 16 bit color format, in a 24 bit color format,
the 24 bits are again distributed in three different
formats of Red, Green and Blue.
Since 24 is equally divided on 8, so it has been
distributed equally between three different color
channels.
Their distribution is like this.
8 bits for R, 8 bits for G, 8 bits for B
It format is the most common used format. Its
format is PPM ( Portable pixMap) which is supported
by Linux operating system.