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Databases

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Issues with Traditional File Management Systems

Before the use of computers and

database management systems
(DBMS), manual file systems
were used to maintain an
organization’s records and files.

Using this traditional file system:

• data and information were stored
and processed using a traditional
file system (paper, files, and
documents)
• each file is independent of the
other file, which leads to data
redundancy, inconsistency, and file
management issues
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How Do DBMS Solve File Management Issues?

Data redundancy is the duplication of data, for example:

• if you are managing the data of a gym where a customer is enrolled
in multiple workout classes, the same customer details will be stored
twice, taking up storage and causing data redundancy

• data redundancy can lead to higher storage fees and inefficient

access times

Data redundancy often leads to inconsistent data, to

illustrate:
• if you are managing the data of a gym, let’s say the customer needs
to change their address
• in a file management system, customer data is stored twice
• if all the address data is not changed in each record, data
inconsistency will occur

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How Do DBMS Solve File Management Issues?
(cont.)

The use of a DBMS makes it is easier to secure data and

information. DBMS allows for the creation of access
constraints so that only authorized users are able to access
the data.

Users are assigned a different set of access rules; this helps

to protect data and users from identity theft, data leaks, and
the misuse of data.

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Database Management Systems (DBMS)

A database management system

(DBMS) is a computer program
that is used to create, process,
and administer a database.

Due to the complexities

surrounding the DBMS
development process, most
organizations do not develop their
own DBMS.

Organizations use DBMSs created

by software vendors including
Oracle, Microsoft, and IBM.

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Database Management Systems (DBMS) (cont.)

It is important to note the differences between a database

and a DBMS.

Database DBMS

A database is a collection of A DBMS is a software

tables, relationships, and program designed to
metadata. DBMS helps to organize and administer a
organize the data found in a database.
database.

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Data Integrity

Data integrity means the

database is reliable, accurate,
and aligned to the goals of the
organization.

Data centralization is critical

in increasing data integrity.
• when data is centralized, it
means it is stored in only one
place
• when multiple lists and data
sources are maintained,
information can become
inconsistent leading to
decreased data integrity

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Relational Database Operations

Databases are designed to

maintain data and information
about various types of data
objects including:
• objects (items in
stock/inventory)
• events (transactions and item
returns/exchanges)
• people (customers, employees,
vendors)
• places (procurement centers
and wholesalers)

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Relational Databases

Relational databases organize data into tables based

on structured data groupings.
Relational databases use links called relationships
between tables.
• tables are used to hold information about the objects to be
represented in the database
• information in tables is stored in rows called records or objects, and
columns called fields. These relationships define how the data in the
tables are related
• a common field that is included in both tables is used to create the
relationship
• rows among multiple tables can be made related using foreign keys
• data can be accessed in many different ways without reorganizing
the database tables themselves

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Referential Integrity

Referential integrity is the

accuracy and consistency of data
within a table relationship in a
database. In relational
databases, two or more tables
can be linked using a
relationship.

The creation of relationships is

achieved using:
• a primary key value (in the primary
or parent table)
• foreign keys (in associated tables)

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Referential Integrity (cont.)

Referential integrity requires that, whenever a foreign key

value is used, it must reference a valid, existing primary key
in the parent table.

For example, if you were to delete record 1556 in a primary

table, you need to be sure that there is not a foreign key in
any related table with a value of 1556.

You should only be able to delete a primary key if there are

no associated records to that primary key.

If you delete the record you'll end up with an orphaned

record.
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Structured Query Language (SQL)

Structured Query Language (SQL),

pronounced “ess-que-el,” is:
• used for human interface and
communication with relational
databases
• considered the standard language

SQL uses user-generated lines of

code (statements) to answer
questions against the database.
Most relational databases use
SQL, but most also have
proprietary extensions that allow
for customized interactivity.

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Data Normalization and Entity Relationship
Diagrams (ERD)
Entities in Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERD) are the various
business objects that make up the database and include:
• roles/people (employees and customers)
• tangible business objects (different types of products or services)
• intangible business objects (logs, system information)

Data normalization is a ERD are a method of structurally

method of organizing various representing database design via
types of data in the database. the use of diagrams.
Normalization is an organized An ERD involves the use of different
approach of breaking symbols and connectors that help to
down/simplifying tables to visualize two different types of
eliminate data redundancy and information:
undesirable data • The entities within the system
characteristics. • The inter-relationships among
these entities
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NoSQL Databases

For many years, relational databases have been the most

popular choice for businesses.

Due to increasing volumes of data, the increased use of web

services, and the need for data storage, alternatives to
relational databases are starting to emerge.

Instead of focusing on relational databases, some companies

are turning to non-relational databases (NoSQL).
• these databases are designed to manage large data sets across many
platforms and have the ability to analyze structured and non-structured
data
• they are also useful for creating queries from the data created from social
media platforms, web apps, and other emerging forms of digital content
• a variety of NoSQL databases are available on the market today

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NoSQL Databases (cont.)

Example
According to Amazon, DynamoDB can handle more than 10
trillion requests per day and can support peaks of more than
20 million requests per second.

Many of the world's fastest growing businesses, such as Lyft,

Airbnb, and Redfin, as well as enterprises such as Samsung,
Toyota, and Capital One, depend on the scale and
performance of DynamoDB to support their mission-critical
workloads.

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Cloud Databases

A Cloud database is a type of database that is built and

accessed via a Cloud platform.

A Cloud platform includes the hardware and operating

environment of servers in an internet-based datacenter.

Key Features of Cloud Databases

• ability for enterprise users to host databases without having to buy
and maintain dedicated hardware
• can be self-managed or maintained and managed by a provider
• support SQL and NoSQL databases
• accessed through the web or a vendor-provided API (Application
Programming Interface)

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Big Data

Big data encompasses all of the analysis tools and processes

related to applying and managing large volumes of data.

Why Big Data? How does Big Data help?

Big Data was conceived out Big data allows organizations
of the need of organizations to use analytics to help
to better understand trends, uncover a variety of
patterns, and preferences predictive behaviors to help
that emerge from the create new offerings.
interaction with different
systems and databases.

The four common characteristics of big data include:

Volume, Variety, Veracity, and Velocity
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The For V’s of Big Data
Volume: Scale of data
Enormous amounts of data are created every day. Most companies have
over 120 terabytes of information stored (that’s 120,000 gigabytes!).

Variety: Different forms of data

Data comes from many structured and unstructured sources. These sources
include social media platforms, email, photos, videos, and point-of-sale
interactions.

Veracity: Uncertainty of data

With all of the data being generated and stored it is important to ensure that
data is meaningful and useful.

Velocity: Analysis of streaming data

The pace at which data is generated is mind-blowing. Ninety percent of the
data on the Internet has been created since 2016.

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Business Intelligence

Business Intelligence (BI) includes the technologies,

computer applications, and procedures for the collection,
analysis, and presentation of business information to help
support decision making.

Key Ideas
• fundamentally, Business Intelligence systems are data-driven
Decision Support Systems (DSS) that aid businesses to make better
strategic decisions
• BI systems provide businesses a picture of historic, current, and
future views of operations
• BI systems use information stored in data warehouses, data marts,
in-memory computing, and other analytic platforms to create
information output

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Data Warehouse

A data warehouse is a
repository of data and
information that organizations
analyze to make informed
business and operational
decisions.

Data and the analytics

provided from the analysis of
data allow organizations to
create/maintain a competitive
advantage.

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Data Warehouse (cont.)

• Data flows into a data warehouse from a variety of transactional

systems (point-of-sale, online transactions, etc.), databases, and
other data-generating sources.
• Information flows into a data warehouse at regular intervals and is
stored for later processing.
• A variety of people within an organization have access to the data
warehouse, including data scientists, key decision-makers (KDMs),
and data specialists.
• Data is analyzed using business intelligence (BI) tools, Structured
Query Language (SQL) clients, and a variety of analytics
applications designed to interpret the data.
• The output created from data warehouses includes reports,
dashboards, and queries.

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Data Mart
Whereas data warehouses are considered multi-purpose data
and information storage facilities, a data mart is a subsection
of a data warehouse that is designed and built specifically for
individual departments or business functions.
Dependent Data Mart
• constructed from existing data warehouses and utilize a top-down
approach where organizational data is stored in a centralized
location, then specific data is extracted when analysis is needed

Independent Data Mart

• a stand-alone system that is created separate from a data
warehouse and focuses on specific organizational functions

Hybrid Data Mart

• assimilates data from a data warehouse as well as other data
collection systems.
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Data Warehouses and Data Marts in Business

Data Warehouses

Data warehouses help to create a decision support system (DSS)

environment which allows businesses to gauge the performance of an
enterprise over measurable periods of time.

Use
Data warehouses contain large amounts of historical data (data is stored in
a series of snapshots) that represent data points at a specific time. This
allows organizations the ability to compare different time periods to make
more informed business decisions.
• one of the advantages of data warehouses is their ability to provide
access and analysis of information from a variety of subject areas

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Data Warehouses and Data Marts in Business
(cont)

Data Marts
Data marts are designed to collect and measure data from specific
operational areas of a business and are used by individual departments or
groups.

Use
Data marts are used to track inventories, purchase transactions, and the
supply chain.
• Data marts assist with the analysis of what data a user needs rather
than focusing on existing data

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In-Memory Computing

In-memory computing is the

use of middleware software to
assist in the storage of data in
random-access memory
(RAM), across a group of
different computers.
• Middleware is software that
provides processing capabilities
outside what is offered by the
user’s operating system
• RAM storage and parallel
processing are two of the main
components of in-memory
computing.

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In-Memory Computing (cont.)

Function: In-Memory Computing

In-memory is used by businesses to help unite
transactional and analytical processing to provide real-time
insights and analytics.
• this creates an environment that increases the amount and speed
at which data can be ingested and analyzed

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Analytic Platforms

Analytics platforms are designed to assist large data-

driven companies in the analysis and interpretation of
organizational data.

Purpose

Analytics platforms provide information about a variety of business and

operational areas including:
• Customer analytics
• Sales and marketing analytics
• Social media analytics
• Cybersecurity
• Plant and facilities data

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Analytic Platforms (cont.)

Example
One of the popular analytics platforms is IBM’s Integrated Analytics
System. According to IBM, “The IBM Integrated Analytics System”:
• is a unified hybrid data management analytics solution providing
massively parallel processing (MPP)
• comprises a high-performance hardware platform, optimized
database query engine software and networking capabilities that
work together to support various data analysis and business-
reporting capabilities

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Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)

Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) is included in many

Business Intelligence (BI) software applications and is used
for a variety of data discovery activities including report
creation and analysis, analytical calculations, forecasting,
budgeting, planning, and what-if predicative analysis.

OLAP software allows users to perform multidimensional

analysis of a wide range of business data, complex
calculations, and trend analysis, as well as data modeling.

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Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) (cont.)

OLAP is used to assist businesses in a wide range of areas

including:
• performance management
• financial reporting
• simulation models
• data warehouse reporting

Newly developed OLAP systems maintain a constant

connection with back-end systems and allow for the delivery
of reports and analytics in Microsoft Excel and other front-
end tools used to collect data.

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Data Mining

Data mining (also referred to as Knowledge Discovery in

Data—KDD) is the searching of large data stores and sets to
uncover patterns and trends that cannot be executed using
OLAP or simple analysis techniques.

The four key properties of data mining include:

1. automatic discovery of patterns
2. prediction of likely outcomes
3. creation of actionable information
4. focus on large data sets and databases

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Data Mining (cont.)

The data mining process includes:

• problem definition
• data gathering and preparation
• model building and evaluation
• knowledge deployment

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Data Mining Information

Data mining is a means of analyzing data that can help

organizations find patterns and relationships within data sets.

Key Ideas about Data Mining

• While data mining is a powerful tool, it does not replace the need to
have an intimate knowledge of the organization, the data that is
produced, and analytical methods employed to turn data into
information
• Data mining assists businesses in uncovering information that may
be hidden in data sets but does offer an organization why this
information may be valuable
• Predictive information and relationships that are produced from data
mining are not causal relationships
• Data mining yields probabilities, not exact answers

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Data Mining Information (cont.)

Example
Data mining might determine that females with incomes
between $75,000 and $100,000 who subscribe to certain
female-targeted magazines may be more likely to purchase
various products.
It is important that analysts not assume that the population
identified through data mining buys the product because they
belong to the identified population.

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Web Mining

Web mining uses the principles of data mining to uncover

and extract information from web sites, social media sites,
e-commerce platforms, and web services.

Commonly Used Techniques to Gain Information

Technique Description

Includes extraction of information from web

Web Content
pages/documents, including text, images, videos,
Mining (WCM)
and interactives.

Web Structure Includes analysis of hyperlinks, nodes, and related

Mining (WSM) web pages.

Also called log mining, includes analysis of web

Web Usage Mining
access logs or the when, how, and frequency of
(WUM)
web site access.

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Web Mining Improves Web Experiences

The use of web mining by

organizations can lead to improved
web site visibility, usability, and
accessibility.
• Site visibility includes how/when the site
surfaces when queries are executed in
search engines. Search Engine
Optimization (SEO) can be enhanced
through the information gained by web
mining
• Usability refers to how easily web site
users/visitors can interact with the site
• Accessibility includes the structure of
web sites and pages to ensure
device/platform access and scalability
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Advantages of Accessing Databases via the Web

Access to internal databases via web technologies is

increasingly important in today’s competitive environment.

Advantages of using the web to access databases include:

1. The knowledge and ability of most users to operate web browsers
and digital devices.
2. Front-end web interfaces require little change to existing database
structures.
3. The increasing amount of global web connectivity and reach.

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Information Policies
Database policies should be
created and implemented by all
organizations, regardless of the
size of the organization.
Information policies specify:
• the rules used in database design
(how data is structured)
• who has access to the data
• how the data is collected and
maintained
• where information and data are
distributed
Example
The information policy at a college/university would specify that only
selected faculty and staff would have access to students’ educational
records. Only those people/areas that need access to this information
would be able to granted access rights.
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Data Administration

Data administration is responsible for the policies and

procedures that are used to manage an organization’s data.
Common data administration tasks include:
• development of information policies
• data planning
• database design
• security
• how internal-users and end-users use data

Data administration also includes the development of data

modes and data dictionaries.

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Data Governance

Data governance (DG) is an important component of a data

management plan. Data governance includes the personnel,
processes, and technology needed to oversee and secure an
organization’s data and data assets.

Data governance policies help to ensure an organization's

data is:
• Valid
• Understandable
• Complete
• Accessible

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Data Governance (cont.)

Areas covered in digital governance include:

• Data architecture
• Data quality
• Data modeling
• Data warehousing and BI
• Data security

The key goals of data governance include:

• risk mitigation
• rules for data use
• compliance to requirements
• cost reduction
• high-quality data

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Data Governance (cont. 2)

When creating a data governance plan, an organization

should determine:
• Goals and objectives of the organization (Where/Who)
• Aspects of business governance should cover (What)
• Technical aspects and specifications (How)

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Data Administrator

Database Administrators
(DBA) is a technically specific
role that is usually part of an
organization’s IT department.

Database administrators monitor

and troubleshoot (when
necessary) the database to
ensure it is functional and
available when needed.

© McGraw Hill Semisatch/Shutterstock 43

Data Administrator (cont.)

Specific DBA tasks include:

• database security
• tuning
• backup
• creation of queries and reports that are used to assist
business decisions

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Data Quality Audit

Data that is of poor quality and validity has many risks. In

order to ensure an organization's data are of the highest
quality, a data quality audit can be used.

Method Purpose
A data quality audit uses Data quality audits help
statistical analysis to test test the accuracy and
data, variabilities, and completeness of an
outcomes against test organization's data and
data. provide a complete picture
of the state of data and
what improvements can be
made to clean up data
issues.

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Data Quality Audit (cont.)

Key Benefits of Executing a Data Quality Audit

• reduced risk of data inconsistency
• reduced data storage costs
• data improvement recommendations

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Use of Data Quality Audit
Conducting data quality audits helps to ensure data being
used by business intelligence and other applications are of
the highest quality.
Analyzing Data
Process Tasks Description
Analyzes the quality of source data. Data sources
Quality Assessment including data warehouses and metadata are
analyzed during this phase.
Involves the creation of quality processes used to
Data Design
manage data.
Quality Incorporates correction maps that are designed to
Transformation correct issues that are present in source data.
Uses an established process to examine data over
Quality Monitoring a given amount of time to ensure data rules are
being followed and that data is valid.

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Data Scrubbing

Data scrubbing (data cleansing) includes the detection of

errors in data sets and the removal/correction of these
mistakes to ensure an organization's data are valid.

Examples of data errors data scrubbing can resolve include:

• elimination of duplicate database records
• correcting misspellings
• correcting incorrect names and address
• fixing syntax issues

Specialized data-scrubbing software is commonly used to

conduct automatic surveys of data files and data sets.

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What Is a Query?

A query is also known as a

question.
• queries request information
from a table (or combination of
tables) in a database
• structured query language
(SQL) is one of the most
popular query languages used
in creating queries
• queries allow you to find
specific data quickly by filtering
based on specific criteria,
calculate/summarize data, and
automate data management
tasks

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How to Run a Query in a Relational Database
Program
Relational database management systems (RDBMS) have a
variety of tools that can be used to execute/run queries.
Query types include:
• Crosstab: calculate the sum, average, or other aggregate
functions, then group the results by two sets of values.

• Action: four types of action queries included in many RDBMS and

include append, delete, update, and make-table queries.

• Parameters: prompt the user for values in order to run/execute

the query.

• Structured Query Language (SQL): specific queries use specific

SQL statements to execute the query.

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 End of Main Content

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No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.