Adama Science and

Technology University

General Chemistry (Chem1102)

Introduction to the study of modern

Chemistry
How and why has the atomic theory changed over time?

How engineers use their knowledge of atoms to create

new technologies?
 Introduction
Questioning what something is made of was a common
practice even among the philosophers of ancient Greece
Democritus (about 470-370BC) thought that all forms
of matter were finitely divisible into indivisible particles
which he called atomos, which means indivisible.
Aristotle and Plato favored the earth, fire, air and water
approach to the nature of matter.
In 1808, John Dalton published the first “modern”
ideas about the existence and nature of atoms

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0 Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
All matter is made of atoms.
0 Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter

0 They make up everything around us; Your desk, the

board, your body, everything is made of atoms!
0 Atoms are too small to see without powerful
microscopes.

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Atomic Theory
• Because we can not see atoms, we use models
to teach and learn about atoms.
• The atomic theory has changed over time as
new technologies have become available.

– Remember: Scientific knowledge builds on

past research and experimentation.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called
atoms. All matter consists of atoms, tiny indivisible particles
of an element that can not be created or destroyed.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size,
mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element.
In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two
of the elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination,
or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or
destruction.
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 Drawbacks of Dalton's Atomic theory

An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element.

However, it is now known that atoms can further be
subdivided into sub-atomic particles like electrons, protons,
and neutrons
Atoms of the same element are identical in all respects,
having the same size, shape and structure and mass.
Today, we know that atoms of the same element can have
slightly different masses. Such atoms are called isotopes.
Isotopes: Atoms of the same elements that have different
mass numbers.

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 Dalton’s atomic theory hypothesis supports (is in agreement
with) the following laws:

The Law of Definite Proportion: States that different samples of the

same compound always contain its constituent elements in the same
proportion by Mass Irrespective of sources of the
compound!
Example: In the substance sodium chloride (NaCl), for instance,
the ratio of the mass of sodium to the mass of chlorine is always
23:35.5, regardless of the source of the salt.
 samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from different
sources contain the same ratio by mass of carbon to oxygen.

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The Law of Multiple Proportions: States that if two elements
can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of
one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element
are in ratios of small whole numbers.

Example: H2O  2: 16 or 1: 8 H2O2  2:32 or 1: 16

The two masses of oxygen are simple whole numbers ratio,
8:16 1:2

Thus, the ratio of oxygen in

carbon monoxide to oxygen
in carbon dioxide is 1:2

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Law of Conservation of Mass: States that matter can be
neither created nor destroyed.

16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y

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 The Structure of the Atom
On the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory:

an atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical
combination

an atom is both extremely small and indivisible

However, a series of investigations that began in the 1850s and extended

into the twentieth century clearly demonstrated that atoms actually possess

internal structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller particles, which

are called subatomic particles. This research led to the discovery of three

such particles-electrons, protons, and neutrons. 11

 The Discovery of Electron

 In 1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson provided the first

hint that an atom is made of even smaller particles.
 In cathode ray tube, Thomson studied the passage of an
electric current from high-voltage source through a gas. As the
current passed through the gas, it gave off rays of negatively
charged particles

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 Thomson’s conclusion:

1. Ray bends in magnetic field –consists of charged particles

2. Ray bends toward positive plate -Consists of negative particles
3. Ray is identical for any cathode - Particles found in all matter

 The rays were called cathode rays because they originated

at the negative electrode (cathode) and moved to the
positive electrode (anode).

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 Cathode rays: properties
 Cathode rays originate from cathode

 Cathode rays travel in straight line

 Cathode rays are deflected by electric field

 Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic field

 These rays consist of material particles

 Cathode rays consist negatively charged particles called "electron"

J. J. Thomson, used a cathode ray tube and his knowledge of
electromagnetic theory to determine the ratio of electric charge
to the mass of an individual electron. The number he came up
with is -1.76 x 108 C/g, where C stands for coulomb, which is the
unit of electric charge.

In a series of experiments carried out between 1908 and 1917,

R. A. Millikan, an American physicist, found the charge of an
electron to be -1.6022 X 10-19 C. From these data he calculated the
mass of an electron:

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 Radioactivity

 Near the turn of the 20th century, French scientists discovered

radioactivity, the emission of particles and/or radiation from atoms
of certain elements
 Marie Curie, suggested the name radioactivity to describe the
spontaneous emission of particles and/or radiation. Consequently,
any element that spontaneously emits radiation is said to be
radioactive.
 Further investigation revealed that three types of rays are produced by
the decay, or breakdown, of radioactive substances such as uranium.

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 Thomson’s Atomic Model
By the early 1900s, two features of atoms had become
clear:
they contain electrons,
they are electrically neutral

On the basis of this information,

Thomson proposed that an atom
could be thought of as a uniform,
positive sphere of matter in which
electrons are embedded

 He did not predict the movement of

these electrons

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Rutherford’s Experiment, Discovery of Proton
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 Rutherford’s experiment involved firing a stream of tiny

positively charged particles (α particles produced from
naturally occurring radioactive source such as radium) at a thin
sheet of gold foil

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)
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 Observations of Alpha Rays Scattering Experiment

1. Most of the -particles passed through the metal foil with out any
change in their path (without any deflection). This indicates most of
the space in the atom was empty which contains the much smaller and
negatively charged electrons

2. A few of the -particles were deflected through small angles.

3. A very small number of the -particles were deflected through such

large angles that they almost retraced their original path. So,
 Positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus of an atom
 Proton is positively charged particle of an atom
 Most mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
 Nucleus is a dense central core within the atom
 nucleus occupies only about 1/1013 of the volume of the atom

Rutherford's Model of Atom

 Rutherford atomic model: electrons move around nucleus

like planets around sun

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 • Total number of positive charges on the
nucleus is equal to the number of electrons.

• Almost the entire mass of the atom is

concentrated in the nucleus.

• The volume of the nucleus is very small

compared to the volume of the atom.

• Electrons are not stationary. They revolve

round the nucleus at extremely high speed.

“If the atom is the Adama stadium, then the

nucleus is a coin on the middle of the stadium.”
 Rutherford’s model of atom failed to
explain the stability of atom
 Failed to explain how the electrons held
outside the nucleus.
Chadwick’s Experiment, Discovery of neutrons

 It was in 1932 that Chadwick Discovered neutrons that

located in the nucleus of an atoms and that they contain
no charge.
 Nuclei of atoms comprise of protons and neutrons, the
only exception being hydrogen in which case nucleus is
made up of only one proton.

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 atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m
nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

Electron, proton, and the neutron are the three fundamental

components of the atom that are important in chemistry
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 mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-
Subatomic Particle Charge Location

Proton Positive (+) Nucleus or “Core”

Neutron No Charge (0) Nucleus or “Core”

Electron Negative (-) Electron Cloud

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 Rutherford-Bohr Model of Atom
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite orbits. These are called
Stationary states.

• Each stationary state is associated with a definite quantity of energy. Hence

these stationary states are also called Energy levels.

• As long as electrons are moving in these stationary states , they do not lose or
gain energy.

• Energy is lost or gained by an electron whenever it jumps from one energy level
to another .
 Limitations of Bohr’s model

 Bohr’s model contradicts with Heisenberg’s uncertainty

principle
 Bohr’s model considers the electron as a particle only. But
according to De Broglie the electron has wave and particle
character
= h
mv

 We can’t be sure at a specific moment where electrons are located!

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 Electron cloud model:
 Electrons do not orbit the nucleus in neat planet-
like orbits but move at high speeds in an electron
cloud around the nucleus.
 visual model of the most likely locations for electrons in
an atom.
 Cloud is denser at locations where probability of finding
an electron is high
 Electron cloud represents all the orbitals in an atom.

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 Indivisible Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
Cloud

Greek X

Dalton X

Thomson X

Rutherford X X

Bohr X X X

Wave X X X
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 Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons (mass number) in their nuclei

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number
(Short hand representation of
an element)
1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 31
 The Isotopes of Hydrogen

protium (A = 1) deuterium (A = 2) tritium (A = 3)

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 14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?
6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
12
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?
6 protons, 6 (12 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
How many protons and electrons are in 27 3+
13 Al
?
13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons
78 2-
How many protons and electrons are in 34 Se ?
34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

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 Noble Gas
34

Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 Molecules and Ions
Of all the elements, only the six noble gases in Group 8A of the
periodic table (He,Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) exist in nature as single
atoms. For this reason, they are called monatomic (meaning a single
atom) gases. Most matter is composed of molecules or ions formed
by atoms.

Natural abundance of elements in Earth’s crust

Natural abundance of elements in human 35body

A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite
arrangement held together by chemical forces

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO, NO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
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An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na +
10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl -
18 electrons
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A monatomic ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

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 Chemical Formulas
Chemical formula: short hand representation of molecules/
chemical compounds.
Used to express the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols.
Composition we mean not only the elements present but also the
ratios in which the atoms are combined.
 A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical
reaction in the form of symbols and formula.
Formulas and Models

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Molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of
each element in the smallest unit of a substance
Empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number
ratio of the atoms in a substance

molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O

N2H4 NH2
A structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds, and
shows how the atoms in a molecule are joined together: H—O—O
—H H—O—H O=C=O. 41
Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and
anions
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula
because ionic compounds do not consist of discrete molecular
units
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each
formula unit must equal zero

The ionic compound NaCl 42

Formula of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
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The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

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 Chemical Nomenclature
 Ionic Compounds
– Often a metal + nonmetal
– Anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name

BaCl2 barium chloride

Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide

KNO3 potassium nitrate

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  Transition metal ionic compounds
– indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 chromium(III) sulfide

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 Molecular compounds
− Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
− Common names
− H2O, NH3, CH4,
− Element furthest to the left in a period
and closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
− If more than one compound can be
formed from the same elements, use
prefixes to indicate number of each kind
of atom
− Last element name ends in ide

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 Molecular Compounds

HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

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An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
For example: HCl gas and HCl in water

•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

•Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),

hydrochloric acid

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An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.

HNO3 nitric acid

H2CO3 carbonic acid

H3PO4 phosphoric acid

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Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions

53
The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of oxoacids, are:

1. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ic” acid, the
anion’s name ends with “-ate.”

2. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ous” acid, the
anion’s name ends with “-ite.”

3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all the
hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate the number
of H ions present.
Example:
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate

HPO4 2- hydrogen phosphate

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PO4 phosphate
3-
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
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 Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate

MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
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 Mass and Moles of a Substance

The Mole Concept

1-octanol Mercury(II)
A mole is defined as the
quantity of a given Iodide
substance that contains as
many molecules or formula
units as the number of
atoms in exactly 12 grams
of carbon–12.
• The number of atoms in a
12-gram sample of carbon–
12 is called Avogadro’s
number (to which we give
the symbol Na). The value
of Avogadro’s number is
6.02 x 1023. Sulfur Methanol
 Mass and Moles of a Substance

• Mole calculations
– Suppose we have 100.0 grams of iron (Fe). The atomic
weight of iron is 55.8 g/mol. How many moles of iron does
this represent?

100.0 g Fe
moles Fe 
55.8 g/mol
1.79 moles of Fe
 Mass and Moles of a Substance

• Mole calculations
– Conversely, suppose we have 5.75 moles of
magnesium (atomic wt. = 24.3 g/mol). What is its
mass?

mass Mg (5.75 moles) (24.3 g/mol)

140 grams of Mg
Or 1.40 x 102 grams of Mg
 Mass and Moles and Number of
Molecules or Atoms

• The number of molecules or atoms in a sample is

related to the moles of the substance:
23
1 mole HCl 6.02 10 HCl molecules
1 mole Fe 6.02 10 23 Fe atoms
• Suppose we have a 3.46-g sample of hydrogen chloride,
HCl. How many molecules of HCl does this represent?

22
 5.7110 HCl molecules
 How many atoms?

How many atoms are in 0.10 moles of Uranium atoms?

Convert to
Moles Atoms
6.02 x 10 23
atoms = 6.0 x 10 22 U atoms
0.10 moles U -----------------------
1 mole

What is the mass of 0.10 moles of Uranium atoms?

Convert to
Moles Grams
238.029 g U
0.10 moles U ----------------------- = 24 grams U
1 mole U
 Percent Composition
• Percent Composition –percentage by mass of each element in a
compound.
Part
_______ x 100%
Percent = Whole

% composition of= Mass of element in1mol

____________________ x 100%
a cpd Mass of 1 mol

Example: What is the percent composition of Potassium KMnO4?

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Step1: We use the observed mass of CO2, 0.4931 grams, to determine
the mass of carbon in the original sample. There is one mole of
carbon atoms, 12.01 grams, in each mole of CO2, 44.01 grams; we use
this information to construct the unit factor.

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 Hydrates
Hydrated salt – salt that has water molecules
trapped within the crystal lattice
Examples: CuSO4•5H2O , CuCl2•2H2O

Anhydrous salt – salt without water molecules

Examples: CuCl2

Calculate the percentage of water in the

hydrated salt!
A 5.0 gram sample of a hydrate of BaCl2 was heated,
and only 4.3 grams of the anhydrous salt remained.
What percentage of water was in the hydrate?
2. Percent of water
1. Amount water lost

5.0 g hydrate 0.7 g water x 100 = 14 %

- 4.3 g anhydrous salt 5.0 g hydrate
0.7 g water
 Calculating Empirical Formula
An oxide of aluminum is formed by the reaction of 4.151 g of
aluminum with 3.692 g of oxygen. Calculate the empirical
formula.
1. Determine the number of grams of each element in the compound.

4.151 g Al and 3.692 g O

2. Convert masses to moles.

4.151 g Al 1 mol Al
= 0.1539 mol Al
26.98 g Al

3.692 g O 1 mol O
= 0.2308 mol O
16.00 g O
3.Find ratio by dividing each element by smallest amount of moles.

0.1539 moles Al= 1.000 mol Al

0.1539

0.2308 moles O = 1.500 mol O

0.1539

4. Multiply by common factor to get whole number. (cannot have

fractions of atoms in compounds)
O = 1.500 x 2 = 3
Al = 1.000 x 2 = 2

4.Use the whole numbers obtained as subscript for the

corresponding element in simplest whole number therefore, Al2O3
When a 2.00 g sample of iron metal is heated in air, it reacts with
oxygen to achieve a final mass of 2.573 g. Determine the empirical
formula.
Fe = 2.000 g O = 2.573 g – 2.000 g = 0.5730 g

2.000 g Fe 1 mol Fe
= 0.03581 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe

0.573 g O 1 mol O
= 0.03581 mol Fe, 1 : 1 FeO
16.00 g

Q. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and

54.50% O by mass. What is the empirical formula of ascorbic acid?
A sample of lead arsenate, an insecticide used against the potato
beetle, contains 1.3813 g lead, 0.00672g of hydrogen, 0.4995 g of
arsenic, and 0.4267 g of oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula for
lead arsenate.
1 mol Pb
1.3813 g Pb
= 0.006667 mol Pb;
207.2 g Pb
0.00672 gH 1 mol H
= 0.00667 mol H
1.008 g H
0.4995 g As 1 mol As
= 0.006667 mol As
74.92 g As
0.4267g O 1 mol O
= 0.02667 mol O
16.00 g O

PbHAsO4
A white powder is analyzed and found to have an empirical formula
of P2O5. The compound has a molar mass of 283.88g. What is the
compound’s molecular formula?
Step 3: Multiply
Step 1: Molar Mass
P = 2 x 30.97 g = 61.94g
O = 5 x 16.00g = 80.00 g MF = (EF)n

141.94 g
MF = (P2O5)2
Step 2: Divide MM by
Empirical Formula Mass
MF = P4O10
238.88 g
=2
141.94g
• Determining the empirical formula from the
percent composition.
– Benzoic acid is a white, crystalline powder used
as a food preservative. The compound contains
68.8% C, 5.0% H, and 26.2% O by mass. What
is its empirical formula?
– In other words, give the smallest whole-number
ratio of the subscripts in the formula

Cx HyOz
For the purposes of this calculation, we will assume
we have 100.0 grams of benzoic acid
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 – Our 100.0 grams of benzoic acid would contain:

1 mol C
68.8 g C  5.73( 3) mol C
12.0 g
1 mol H This isn’t quite a
5 .0 g C 
H 5.0 mol H whole number ratio,
1.0 g but if we divide each
number by the
1 mol O smallest of the three,
26.2 g O  1.63(7 )mol O a better ratio might
16.0 g emerge.
• Determining the empirical formula from the
percent composition.
– Our 100.0 grams of benzoic acid would contain:

5.73 mol C 1.63(7) 3.50 now it’s not too

difficult to See that
the smallest whole
5.0 mol H 1.63(7) 3.0 number ratio is
7:6:2.
1.63(7 ) mol O 1.63(7) 1.00 The empirical
formula is
C 7H 6O2 .
 What is the Empirical Formula if the % composition is
40.0% C, 6.7% H, and 53.3% O?
1 mole C
40.0 g C -------------- = 3.33 moles C 3.33 =1.0 mole C
12.011g C 3.33

1 mole H 6.64
6.7 g H -------------- = 6.64 moles H = 2.0 mole H
1.0079g H 3.33
1 mole O 3.33
53.3 g O ------------- = 3.33 moles O = 1.0 mole O
15.999g O 3.33

The Empirical Formula is CH2O (MW =30.026)

If MW of the real formula is 180.155, what is the actual formula?
(180.155)/(30.026) = 6 CH2O x 6 = C6H12O6
Suppose that in one experiment the combustion of 11.5 g
of ethanol produced 22.0 g of CO2 and 13.5 g of H2O. We
can calculate the mass of carbon and hydrogen in the
original 11.5 g sample of ethanol as follows:

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 Q1. A compound with an empirical formula of C2OH4 and
a molar mass of 88 grams per mole. What is the
Q2. Nitrogen
molecular and of
formula oxygen form an extensive series of
this compound?
oxides with the general formula NxOy. One of them is a
blue solid that comes apart, reversibly, in the gas phase.
Q3. An unknown compound was found to have a percent
It contains 36.84% N. What is the empirical formula of this
composition as follows: 47.0 % potassium, 14.5 % carbon,
oxide?
and 38.5 % oxygen. What is its empirical formula? If the
true molar mass of the compound is 166.22 g/mol, what is
its molecular formula?
Q4. What are the empirical and molecular formulas of
caffeine that contains by mass composition of 49.5%
82 C,
 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
Chemical reaction-a process in which a substance (or substances)
is changed into one or more new substances.
A chemical equation- uses chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction.
substance formed as a result of
starting materials in a
a chemical reaction
chemical reaction

83
 Balancing Chemical Equations:
Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formulas

Begin balancing the equation by trying different coefficients to

make the number of atoms of each element the same on both sides
First, look for elements that appear only once on each side of the
equation with the same number of atoms on each side

Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have the same
total number of each type of atoms on both sides of the equation arrow

Check the total charges on both sides of the chemical equations are
balanced

2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2 84

 Reaction Yield

 Yield, also referred to as reaction yield, is the amount of product

obtained in a chemical reaction.
 The absolute yield can be given as the weight in grams or in
moles
 Limiting Reactant-The reactant used up first in a reaction
It is the reactant run out first
 Determines maximum amount of product to be formed.
 Excess reactants- are the reactants present in quantities greater
than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent
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88
• Zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid by
the following reaction.
Zn(s)  2 HCl(aq)  ZnCl 2 (aq)  H 2 (g )

– If 0.30 mol Zn is added to hydrochloric acid

containing 0.52 mol HCl, how many moles of H2
are produced?
 • Take each reactant in turn and ask how much
product would be obtained if each were
totally consumed. The reactant that gives the
smaller amount is the limiting reagent.

1 mol H 2
0.30 mol Zn  0.30 mol H 2
1 mol Zn
1 mol H 2
0.52 mol HCl  0.26 mol H 2
2 mol HCl
• Since HCl is the limiting reagent, the amount of H2
produced must be 0.26 mol.
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92
Theoretical yield- the amount of product that would result if all
the limiting reactant reacted (obtained from balanced chemical
reaction)
Actual yield- the amount of product actually obtained from a
reaction (experimentally obtained yield!)
almost always less than the theoretical yield
Percent yield- describes the proportion of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield,

Why actually yield is less than theoretical yield?

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• Not all product is recovered (e.g. spattering)
• Reactant impurities (e.g. weigh out 100 g of
chemical which has 20 g of junk)
• A side reaction occurs (e.g. MgO vs. Mg3N2)
• The reaction does not go to completion

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Q1 - What is the % yield of H2O if 138 g H2O is produced from 16 g H2 and

excess O2?

Step 1: write the balanced chemical equation

2H2 + O2  2H2O

Step 2: determine actual and theoretical yield. Actual is given, theoretical is

calculated:

# g H2O= 16 g H2 x 1 mol H x 2 mol H O x 18.02 g H2O=

2 2
143 g
2.02 g H2 2 mol H2 1 mol H2O
Step 2: Calculate % yield
% yield = actual = 138 g H2O
x 100% x 100% = 96.7%
theoretical 143 g H2O
2.

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98
Q1

Q2. Assume the reaction given below:

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