5th Annual Research Seminar (MRAS – 2024)

Organized by Myanmar Researchers Association in Sri

Lanka
Makutarama Myanmar Temple, Colombo-09, Sri Lanka

Academic Writing

Aggañāṇī

24.9.2024 (Tuesday)
C o n te n ts

• What is Academic Writing?

• The Purpose of Academic Writing
• Why Should Students Learn Academic Writing?
• Common Types of Academic Writing
• Different Academic Writing Styles
• Features of Academic Writing
• From Research to Writing: Essential Skills for Academic Writers
• Critical Thinking
• Simple and Complex Sentences
• Academic Writing is... vs. Academic Writing is not…
• Constructing Paragraphs
• Effective Note-making
• Verb Tenses in Academic Writing
• Academic Writing: How to Start Sentences
 What is Academic Writing?

• Academic writing is arguably the most important skill in academic contexts, since writing is the
main method of academic communication.
• It is also the most difficult skill for most students to master.
• Simply put, academic writing is teaching students how to write essays in academic contexts.
• That sounds pretty simple, but there is a lot more to it than that.
• Essay writing is the process of sharing complex ideas, thoughts, or opinions.
• Writers learn to construct a rather complicated argument or explanation by combining sentences
into paragraphs and paragraphs into an essay.
• Academic writing demands writers become clear in their explanations and reasoning, direct in their
communication, and most importantly, able to make readers understand their topic and thesis.
 The Purpose of Academic Writing

• Writers should be clear why they are writing. The most common reasons for writing include:

• to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted,

• to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen,

• to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view and

• to synthesize research done by others on a topic.

 Why Should Students Learn Academic Writing?

• Students should learn academic writing because writing is thinking.

• Learning how to write strong essays is important because at its most fundamental level, it is
about taking your own thoughts and then arranging them.

• They are logical and make sense, first to yourself, and then to your readers.

• This happens because you are pulling these thoughts from your mind and crystalizing them on
paper or a screen.

• They are in a place where not only you have to see them for what they are, but so can other
people.
 Why Should Students Learn Academic
Writing? contd.
• If your ideas are convincing and powerful, these thoughts can become the thoughts of
others. This is the crux of communication.

• Good thoughts = good writing.

• If your thoughts are unclear or not solid or lack structure, they will be poor writing and
others will not understand nor agree.

• Most writers start at a place where their writing is not particularly good, but by practicing
writing skills, they learn how to become better writers, which means they become better
thinkers.

• Practicing writing is like sharpening your thinking process – the more you do it and the better
Common Types of Academic Writing Definition

• Essay • A fairly short, self-contained argument, often using sources from a

class in response to a question provided by an instructor.

• A more in-depth investigation based on independent research, often

• Research paper
in response to a question chosen by the student.

• The large final research project undertaken at the end of a degree,

• Thesis/ dissertation
usually on a dissertation topic of the student’s choice.

• An outline of a potential topic and plan for a future dissertation or

• Research proposal research project.

• A critical synthesis of existing research on a topic, usually written in

order to inform the approach of a new piece of research.
• Literature review
• A write-up of the aims, methods, results, and conclusions of a lab

• Lab report experiment.

• A list of source references with a short description or evaluation of

• Annotated bibliography
Different Academic Writing Styles
• Good academic writing can be challenging as it requires the right mix of descriptive, analytical, persuasive, and critical writing
skills.
• Each of the four academic writing styles has its own unique characteristics and applications.
• Descriptive Writing
• It is often used in academic writing to help give readers a clear understanding of the research topic.
• This academic writing style is used to describe and explain different concepts, events, phenomenon, experiments,
developments, people, and places, or to simply provide more information or facts about the research.
• Descriptive writing is often seen in the introductory sections of articles or in literature reviews, which summarize and synthesis
existing knowledge on a research topic.
• Analytical Writing
• Aims to break down complex concepts, events, or phenomenon into its constituent parts and analyze these in detail to identify
patterns, relationships, and connections within the topic.
• The methodology and discussion sections are examples of academic writing where the analytical style is most common;
authors must detail the methods used, interpret results in relation to existing knowledge, and corroborate whether the results
complement or contradict the research topic.
 Different Academic Writing Styles contd.

• Persuasive Writing
• Aims to convince the reader of the validity of the author’s argument or point of view.
• It is similar to analytical writing in that it tried to persuade readers to accept the researcher’s stand or
argument by emphasizing the evidence and analysis conducted.
• This academic writing style is often used in the introduction and discussion sections, where authors need to
highlight the significance of the research and its contribution to the field.
• Persuasive writing is also crucial in research proposals.
• Critical Writing
• Involves the evaluation and analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of an argument or idea; it may result in
more than one viewpoint or conclusion based on validated sources.
• Critical writing helps researchers defend their stand, by identifying biases, assumptions, and logical fallacies in
the argument or idea.
• The most common examples of academic writing that use this style are the literature review and
discussion/conclusion sections of a research paper, where authors critically assess existing content and then
position their work effectively within the field of study.
From Research to Writing: Essential Skills for
Academic Writers
• Academic writing is a unique form of writing that requires a set of skills and abilities that not every writer
possesses.
• 1. Intellectual Curiosity and Research Skills: The Foundation of Academic Writing
• Intellectual curiosity drives an academic writer to explore, question and seek answers to complex problems. It is
the foundation of academic writing.

• Research skills are equally crucial in academic writing. They enable an academic writer to gather and analyze
information from various sources, making the writing comprehensive and evidence-based.
• 2. Critical Thinking and Analytical Skills: Evaluating and Judging Based on Evidence
• Academic writing requires an in-depth analysis of complex problems and ideas.

• Critical thinking is necessary to evaluate and make judgements based on evidence.

• Analytical skills also play a critical role in academic writing. They enable an academic writer to break down
complex information into smaller parts, making it easier to understand and evaluate.
 From Research to Writing: Essential Skills for Academic Writers contd.

• 3. Writing and Communication Skills: Expressing Ideas and Arguments Clearly

• Academic writing requires a specific style and tone, which must be engaging and informative.

• An excellent academic writer must be able to express ideas and arguments concisely and clearly.

• Communication skills are equally crucial in academic writing. They enable an academic writer to articulate ideas
and arguments to a broad audience.
• 4. Time Management and Organization Skills: Ensuring Efficiency and Productivity
• Academic writing requires a significant amount of time and effort.

• Time management is essential to ensure that deadlines are met, and the writing process is efficient and
productive.
• Organization skills are also necessary to keep track of research, notes, and drafts, making the writing process
more manageable.
• Techniques such as creating a writing schedule and prioritizing tasks can help an academic writer manage time
 From Research to Writing: Essential Skills for Academic Writers contd.

• 5. Subject Matter Expertise: Knowing the Topic Inside and Out

• Subject matter expertise is essential to have a deep understanding of the topic being written about to produce
quality academic work.

• An excellent academic writer must be well-read and up-to-date on the latest developments in his field.

• Techniques such as attending conferences, reading academic journals, and collaborating with colleagues can
help an academic writer develop and enhance his subject matter expertise.
• 6. Editing: The Importance of Reviewing and Polishing Academic Writing
• Editing academic work involves reviewing and polishing the writing to ensure that it is clear, concise, and error-
free.
• It is an essential step in the writing process that helps an academic writer produce quality work.

• Techniques such as taking a break between writing and editing, reading the writing out loud, and seeking
feedback from colleagues can help an academic writer effectively edit his work.
 Critical Thinking

• This approach is important for all academic work (i.e. reading, listening, discussing and writing).
• Critical thinking means not just passively accepting what you hear or read, but instead actively questioning
and assessing it.
• As you read, you should ask yourself the following questions:
• (a) What are the key ideas in this?
• (b) Does the argument of the writer develop logically, step by step?
• (c) Are the examples given helpful? Would other examples be better?
• (d) Does the author have any bias?
• (e) Does the evidence presented seem reliable, in my experience and using common sense?
• (f) Is this argument similar to anything else I have read?
• (g) Do I agree with the writer’s views?
 Simple and complex sentences
Simple sentences Complex sentences
• Easier to write and read. • Needed in academic writing.

• Make clarity a priority. • Avoid writing very complex sentences until you feel
confident in writing them.
• The evidence from this study intimated that not only
vitakka juxtaposes with vicāra in the Buddhist • Contain conjunctions, relative pronouns or punctuation,
literature but also that both of them in some forms which link the clauses:
of consciousness are inseparable. • Ashin Nandamālābhivaṃsa states that mind (citta)
• On this first question, the current research differs from initial thought (vitakka); the majority of
people assume that mind is identical to vitakka
elaborated the diversity of thoughts comprising
whereas in fact one should know separately these two
unwholesome and wholesome thoughts from the
categories: one is citta which is conscious of object
Buddhist ethical framework and the psychological and the other one is mental states (cetasika) that
standpoint. depend on citta from the Abhidhamma point of view;
no religion would accept a mind devoid of vitakka.
• Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate
that some contents of this available literature on
vitakka are very similar but the suggested discussions
and the approach to it are different.
Academic Writing is… Academic
Writing is not…
• Formal and unbiased • Personal
• Clear and precise • Long-winded
• Focused and well structured • Emotive and grandiose
• Well sourced
• Correct and consistent
 Academic Writing is …

• ✅ Formal and Unbiased

• Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way.

• The goal is to base arguments on the evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions.

• All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just asserted.

• To avoid bias, it is important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of your own research fairly and
accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology and being honest about the limitations of your research.

• The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently across different texts, so that
studies can be objectively assessed and compared with other research.

• It’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices.

• Avoid informal language, including slang, contractions, clichés, and conversational phrases:
• Also, a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.
• Moreover, many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.
 ✅ Clear and Precise
• It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader knows exactly what you mean.
• This means being as specific as possible and avoiding vague language:
• ❌ People have been interested in this thing for a long time.
• ✅ Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10 years.
• Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in
your arguments.
• Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your meaning:
• ❌ This could perhaps suggest that…
• ✅ This suggests that…
• Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which generally targets an
audience of other academics in related fields.
• Jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated. A
specialist term should be used when:
 It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.
 Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
 The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.
 ✅ Focused and Well structured
• An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it needs to have a clear purpose.
• Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement, and use it to develop a focused argument.
• Only include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.
• A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas.
• Pay attention to structure at three levels.
• Overall structure
• Always include an introduction and a conclusion.
• Divide longer texts into chapters or sections with clear headings.
• Make sure information is presented in a logical order.

• Paragraph structure
• Start a new paragraph when you move onto a new idea.
• Use a topic sentence at the start of each paragraph to indicate what it’s about, and make clear transitions between
paragraphs.
• Make sure every paragraph is relevant to your argument or question.

• Sentence structure:
• Use transition words to express the connections between sentences.
• Use appropriate punctuation to avoid sentence fragments or run-on sentences.
 ✅ Well sourced
• Academic writing uses sources to support its claims.
• Sources are other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author analyzes or uses as evidence.
• Many of your sources will be written by other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on previous
research.
• It’s important to consider which sources are credible and appropriate to use in academic writing.
• For example, citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use
academic databases and your university library to find credible sources.
• You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This means acknowledging whenever you quote
or paraphrase someone else’s work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.
• There are many different citation styles with different rules.
• The most common styles are APA, MLA, and Chicago.
• Make sure to consistently follow whatever style your institution requires.
• If you don’t cite correctly, you may get into trouble for plagiarism.
Well sourced contd.

• APA citation example

•

• In-text citation Elsewhere, it has been argued that the method is “the best currently available”
(Smith, 2019, p. 25).

• Reference list Smith, J. (2019). Statistical analysis methods (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Norton.
 ✅ Correct and Consistent
• As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation, and citation, it’s important to consistently apply
stylistic conventions regarding:
• how to write numbers,

• introducing abbreviations,

• using verb tenses in different sections,

• capitalization of terms and headings, and

• spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English.

• The most important thing is to apply the same rules consistently and to carefully proofread your text before
submitting.
 Academic Writing is not Personal.
• Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal.
• Information about the author may come in at some points—for example in the acknowledgements or in a personal
reflection—but for the most part the text should focus on the research itself.
• Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person pronoun “you.”
• Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate phrasing instead for generalizations:
• ❌ As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.
• ✅ As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
• ✅ Teachers must treat their students fairly.
• The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly
accepted in many fields.
• If you’re unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask your instructor.
• When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason.
• Avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:
• ❌ In my opinion…
• ❌ I think that…
 ❌ Long-winded
• Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and long-winded.
• This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as possible.
• If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting your meaning, it should
be done.
• Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word
equivalents where possible:
• ❌ Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018.
• ✅ Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018.
• Repetition is a part of academic writing—
• for example, summarizing earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid
unnecessary repetition.
• Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.
 ❌ Emotive and Grandiose
• An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text.
• Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic
context.
• Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.
• Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of academic writing is to
clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response.
• Avoid using emotive or subjective language:
• ❌ This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes in construction history.
• ✅ The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the highest in construction history.
• Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated, unsupported claims and
flowery language.
• Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and don’t overstate your point:
• ❌ Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on all subsequent literature is
enormous.
• ✅ Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period and has had a significant influence
 Constructing Paragraphs

• Unity
• A paragraph should discuss only one idea. i.e. do not discuss advantages and disadvantages of a theory – split these parts of the argument into two

separate paragraphs.

• The opening sentence of paragraph should outline the main idea (topic sentence).

• Every supporting sentence should directly explain, refer back to, or build on the main idea.

• Use the final sentence to refer back to the topic sentence and/or lead into the following paragraph.

• Colour-coded Paragraphs
• Follow the structural paragraph format detailed below to construct your paragraph.

• Use highlighter pens of different colours, highlight each line of your paragraph to indicate Topic

sentence, Explanation/definition, Evidence and Comment, Concluding sentence.

• Have you constructed a ‘unity’ paragraph?

 Example Paragraph (Argue)

• Regarding mind (citta) and thoughts (vitakka), many persons believe that citta is indistinguishable
from vitakka. Ashin Nandamālābhivaṃsa postulates that thought or mind is different from initial
thought. Nevertheless, it should be clearly affirmed that citta is awareness of the object
(ārammaṇa) and mental states (cetasitka) that arise and perish together with citta, depend on
citta as specially shown in the Abhidhamma. In this case, vitakka is termed pakiṇṇaka cetasika
which associates both sobhana and asobhanacittas, but not with all of them, as we saw earlier. It
is apparently obvious that mind differs from initial thought.
• Ashin Nandamālābhivaṃsa (PhD). Thoughts of the Mind (Saiteiatwaymya). (Yangon: Aung Zambu Offset Press, 2010)
1.
 Example Paragraph (Classify)
• Six roots play an important role regarding initial thought: three unwholesome roots and three wholesome roots. Padmasiri De

Silva discusses that in terms of these six roots of vitakka, the basic springs of psychological motivation are analyzed. Greed

generates the positive ‘approach desires’, anger generates the ‘avoidance desires’ in the form of hatred and resentment and

delusion creates confusion in the mind and is also associated with wrong intellectual views. The opposites of them are generosity,

compassionate love and wisdom which lead to inner happiness at the individual level and harmony at the interpersonal level.

Human behavior is analyzed as good and bad according to context. It must be stated that greed, hatred and delusion are roots of

morally harmful behavior while the roots in non-greed/generosity, non-hatred/compassion and non-delusion/wisdom have

morally appreciative behavior. This point indicates that both the psychological and ethical are interwoven. The analysis of six-fold

vitakkas is connected with the psychological roots of motivation, moral psychology and the relationship between ethics and

psychology in Buddhism.
• (Padmasiri de Silva, An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Counselling—Pathways of Mindfulness-Based Therapies. (England: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2014) 20, 32).
 Example Paragraph (Compare or
Contrast)
• Evil unwholesome thoughts mentioned in the Vitakkasutta refers to as thoughts representing vitakka. Again, an evil

unwholesome consciousness stated in the Cintasutta refers to as thought or reflection representing citta. The Cintīsutta of
the Aṅguttaranikāya elucidates the fact that how the term cintī differentiates between the fool and the wise. In terms of
characteristic, marks and manifestation, a person who thinks badly, speaks badly and acts badly is a fool or a bad person.
This fellow is a fool or a bad person because the fool thinks badly (duccintitacintī), speaks badly and act badly. The wise has
these following three characteristics, marks and manifestations of a wise person. A person who thinks well, speaks well and
acts well is termed wise. This fellow is a wise or a good person because the wise person thinks well (sucintitacintī), speaks
well and acts well. When one thinks badly, verbal misconduct and bodily misconduct will follow. Simultaneously, when one
thinks well, verbal good conduct and bodily good conduct will follow. Henceforth, thinking (citta) which has a similar
meaning of vitakka discriminates between the foolish and the wise. (A. I. 102-103; NDB. 202)
 Example Paragraph (Define)
• Ūhana is one of the synonymous terms of vitakka. In the Pāḷi-English Dictionary, the literal translation of ūhana

representing vitakka is reasoning, consideration and examination. Ūhana-hitting upon is possibly connected with the

meaning of ūhananti-to cut off, discharge, emit, defecate, lift up, take away. The Atthasālinī specifies a better

definition of ūhana as earlier explained in the etymological study of vitakka and it shows how it is equivalent in

meaning with vitakka. The word ūhana is used to represent the word manasikāra in the Milindapañha along these

lines: the statement pronounces that “examination is the distinguishing mark of attention and cutting off is the

distinguishing mark of wisdom.” With regard to this, having taken hold of the mind with attention, one who is

devoted to mental training cuts off the defilements with wisdom. What ūhana definitely represents the term vitakka

is reasoning or consideration or examination.

• T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede. Pāḷi-English Dictionary. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1921-1925) 180.

• Mil. 33; Q.K.M. 34.

 Example Paragraph (Explain)
• Vitakka as a speculative personality trait is one of the six-fold temperaments. In the work of Ācariya
Buddhaghosa, the Buddha emphasizes the speculative personality of a monk who works with meditative
objects. Similarly, it is understood that his emphasis on personality covers the nature of speculative
personality of lay persons. On the other hand, in his work on the Facets of Buddhism and Moral
Psychology, Padmasiri de Silva, the Sri Lanka Scholar, states that human behavior is evaluated as good
and bad, on the basis of the roots of morally harmful behavior and morally appreciative behavior. It is
said that a bad action bears the worst result; a good action bears the best result and both of them have
their repeated tendency respectively. Accordingly, the personal behavior of vitakkacarita can be morally
harmful or appreciative. It is a fact that indicates character-building is very crucial and both the
psychological and the ethical are interwoven. He remarks that there is a symmetric point between the
roots of motivation, personality types and the distinction between negative and positive emotions (on
moral and psychological grounds). (Padmasiri de Silva. 20-32) He, additionally, endorses that material for
the study of both traits and types of personality is included in the Psychology of Buddhism. On the
contrary, both of them are rooted in a basic ethical and spiritual concern about man together with the
framework of Buddhist psychological analysis. The foregoing discussion implies that vitakka as the
 Example Paragraph (Illustrate)
• The intrinsic nature of vitakka is a going-about the object. The Vammikasutta has tried to explain the
nature of the unwholesome thoughts. The Blessed One expounded that the ant-hill fumes by night and
flames by day. One thinks and ponders by night based upon one’s actions during the day. It is called the
‘fuming by night’. After thinking and pondering by night, one undertakes the actions by body, speech and
mind during the day. It is called the ‘flaming by day’. (M. I. 144; MLDB. 238) According to this discourse,
unwholesome thoughts are like the fume, that is, planning activity of the mind at night produces one’s
action during the day. On the basis of the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest that thinking
unwholesome thoughts by night constructs his or her actions by body, speech and mind during the day.
Then, the Commentary to the Vammikasutta expands the term dhūma which has the sense of anger,
craving, initial thought, five sensual pleasures, dhamma discussion and the natural form of smoke itself. (Ps.
II. 130) As proposed by the commentarial explanation of the above Sutta, smoke represents unwholesome
thoughts and wholesome thoughts.
 Effective Note-making
• Notes are for your personal use so you should create your own style.

• (a) You must use your own words and not copy phrases from the original to avoid the risk of plagiarism.
The quantity of notes you make depends on your task: you may only need a few points, or a lot of detail.

• (b) Always record the source of your notes, to save time when you have to write the list of references.

• (c) Notes are written quickly, so keep them simple. Do not write sentences. Leave out articles (a/ the)
and prepositions (of/ to).

• (d) If you write lists, it is important to have clear headings (underlined) and numbering systems (a, b, c,
or 1, 2, 3,) to organise the information. Do not crowd your notes.

• (e) Use symbols (+, >, = ) to save time.

• (f) Use abbreviations (e.g. = for example). You need to make up your own abbreviations for your subject
area. But do not abbreviate too much, or you may find your notes hard to understand in the future!
Verb Tenses in Academic Writing

• In academic writing, the most commonly used tenses are the present simple, the past simple and the present
perfect.
• When to use the present simple
• When to use the past simple
• When to use the present perfect
• When to use other tenses

• When to Use the Present Simple

• The present simple is the most commonly used tense in academic writing. There are two main situations where
you always need to use the present tense.
 When to Use the Present Simple contd.

• 1. Describing Facts, Generalizations, and Explanations

• Facts that are always true do not need to be located in a specific time, so they are stated in the present simple.
• State these types of facts when giving background information in your introduction.
• An explanatory discussion of the available literature on vitakka is the highlight and usefulness of this work.
• The thought-person relationship is apparent in the Early Buddhist Canonical Text as thoughts of a great
person and thoughts of the Buddha.
• Similarly, theories and generalizations based on facts are expressed in the present simple.
• Explanations of terms, theories, and ideas should also be written in the present simple.
• 2. Describing the Content of a Text
• Things that happen within the space of a text should be treated similarly to facts and generalizations.
• This applies to fictional narratives in books, films, plays, etc.
• Use the present simple to describe the events or actions that are your main focus; other tenses can be used to
mark different times within the text itself.
When to Use the Present Simple contd.

• The events in the first part of the sentence are the writer is main focus, so they are described in the

present tense. The second part uses the past tense to add extra information about something that

happened prior to those events within the book.

• When discussing and analyzing nonfiction, similarly, use the present simple to describe what the

author does within the pages of the text (argues, explains, demonstrates, etc.).

• When summarizing the research in your abstract, describing your objectives, or giving an overview of

the dissertation structure in your introduction, the present simple is the best choice of tense.

• ✅ This research aims to synthesize the two theories.

• ✅ Chapter 3 explains the methodology and discusses ethical issues.

• ✅ The paper concludes with recommendations for further research.

 When to Use the Past Simple

• The past simple should be used to describe completed actions and events, including steps in the research
process and historical background information.

• Reporting Research Steps

• Whether you are referring to your own research or someone else’s, use the past simple to report specific
steps in the research process that have been completed.
• The past simple is also the most appropriate choice for reporting the results of your research.

• Describing Historical Events

• Background information about events that took place in the past should also be described in the past simple
tense.
 When to Use the Present Perfect

• The present perfect is used mainly to describe past research that took place over an unspecified time period. You can

also use it to create a connection between the findings of past research and your own work.
• Summarizing Previous Work
• When summarizing a whole body of research or describing the history of an ongoing debate, use the present perfect.

• ✅ Researchers have not treated vitakka in much detail.

• ✅ Previous studies have not dealt with the relationship between out of 121, 55 types of cittas associated with

vitakka and personality-types; and the function of vitakka, a conditioning state, in the jhāna condition and the

magga condition.

• Similarly, when mentioning research that took place over an unspecified time period in the past (as opposed to a

specific step or outcome of that research), use the present perfect instead of the past tense.
 When to Use the Present Perfect contd.

• Emphasizing the Present Relevance of Previous Work

• When describing the outcomes of past research with verbs like find, discover or demonstrate,

you can use either the past simple or the present perfect.

• The present perfect is a good choice to emphasize the continuing relevance of a piece of

research and its consequences for your own work. It implies that the current research will

build on, follow from, or respond to what previous researchers have done.

• Note, however, that the facts and generalizations that emerge from past research are

reported in the present simple.

 When to Use Other Tenses

• While the above are the most commonly used tenses in academic writing, there are many cases where
you’ll use other tenses to make distinctions between times.

• Future Simple
• The future simple is used for making predictions or stating intentions. You can use it in a research
proposal to describe what you intend to do.

• It is also sometimes used for making predictions and stating hypotheses.

• Similarly, when discussing the future implications of your research, rather than making statements
with will, try to use other verbs or modal verbs that imply possibility (can, could, may, might).
• ❌ These findings will influence future approaches to the topic.

• ✅ These findings could influence future approaches to the topic.

 When to Use Other Tenses contd.

• Present, Past, and Future Continuous

• The continuous aspect is not commonly used in academic writing. It tends to convey an informal tone, and in

most cases, the present simple or present perfect is a better choice.

• However, in certain types of academic writing, such as literary and historical studies, the continuous aspect might

be used in narrative descriptions or accounts of past events.

• ✅ While Harry is traveling to Hogwarts for the first time, he meets many of the characters who will become

central to the narrative.

• ✅ The country was still recovering from the recession when Donald Trump was elected.

• Past Perfect
• Similarly, the past perfect is not commonly used, except in disciplines that require making fine distinctions

between different points in the past or different points in a narrative’s plot.

 Academic Writing: How to Start
Sentences
• Introducing A Topic
• This study is about [subject]. In particular it will investigate / examine / discuss / consider / cover /
include / contain ... most importantly / specifically / particularly it will ...
•There are [number] issues / areas / facts / topics / parts in this
study/ thesis/ essay/ report about [subject]. They are ...
•In this report on [subject], the following issues / areas / topics /
facts will be discussed/ examined/ investigated ...
•This essay discusses [subject] from the perspective of ....
•[Subject/ Issue] is [extensively/ briefly/ succinctly/ in detail/ at length] explored/ defined/ outlined/
explained/ identified/ justified/ demonstrated/ in ....
•The definition of [subject] is given in ...
Introducing A Topic contd.

• In this essay [subject] has been investigated/ explored/ ... with the intention of ...

• The key aspect/s discussed here is/are ...

• Emphasised in the present study are ...

• This paper contests/challenges/ questions the claim that ....

• This thesis will review the research conducted so far on [subject].

• This study will focus on/ examine/ give an account of [subject].

• This paper seeks to contribute to remedy the problem of [subject] by analysing the literature on ....

• This research examines the significance of [subject] in the context of ....

• The major focus of this study/ research/ thesis/ dissertation/ essay is to examine/ review/ investigate/ analyse [subject].

•
 Concluding a Topic

• In summary/ summation, ...

• To review/ summarise/
• To conclude/ sum up, ...
• In conclusion, ...
• In brief/ short, ...
• All in all, ...
• Taking everything into account/ Considering, ...
• Thus/ Hence/ Therefore, ...
• It has been shown that ...
• On a final note, ...
• As a final point, ...
• As a concluding remark, we may state that ...
 Concluding a Topic contd.

• This study/ research has shown that ....

• These findings suggest that ...
• One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that ....
• It was also shown/ demonstrated/ substantiated that....
• This study has found that generally ....
• The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study.
• The relevance of [subject] is clearly supported by the current findings.
• The second/ third/ fourth major finding was that ...
• Important conclusions drawn from this work include ...
• The current findings add [substantially to our understanding of/ a growing body of literature on] ...
• The present study makes several noteworthy contributions to ....
 Pointing to Knowledge Gap

• However, to the best of author’s knowledge, no thorough study has been found so far
on [subject] from the viewpoint of ....
• Literature reviews have indicated that there were no ....
• So far, however, there has been little discussion about ....
• However, far too little attention has been paid to .....
• Most studies in/ on [subject] have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
• The research to date has tended to focus on [subject-1] rather than [subject-2].
• In addition, no research has been found that surveyed/ specifically examined/ delved
into/ explored ...
 Pointing to Knowledge Gap contd.

• So far this theory/ doctrine/ view has only been applied to ....
• However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in ....
• The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about ....
• However, there is no reliable evidence that ....
• As shown above, most studies examined ....
• On the other hand, no study has examined ...
• Yet, very few studies have examined ...
• There are a quite few research studies on [subject].
• However, studies on [subject] are rare to find in literature.
•
 Comparing and Contrasting
• Similarly/ Likewise, ...
• In the same way ...
• In comparison ...
• Complementary to this, ...
• Then again, ...
• However, ...
• Whereas ...
• In spite of ...
• In contrast, / in contrast to ...
• And yet ...
• Nevertheless, ...
• Conversely, ...
• On the contrary, ...
• On the other hand, ...
• Notwithstanding/ Despite ...
 Claiming

• In this paper/ study/ thesis, I put forward/ present/ postulate/ submit the claim that ...
• [X] develops the claim that ...
• There is ample / growing support for the claim that ...
• [X]’s findings lend support to the claim that ...
• Taking a middle-ground position, [X] claims that ...
• Examined in detail here is the claim posited by [X] that ...

[X] = Author under discussion

 Presenting Data

• The data gathered in the [pilot study] suggest that ...

• The data appear to suggest that ...
• The data yielded by this study/ research provide strong / convincing evidence that ....
• A closer look at the data indicates that ...
• The data generated by [X] are reported in [table 1].
• The aim of this section/ chapter is to generalize beyond the data and ...
Debating

• [X] has encouraged debate on ...

• There has been an inconclusive debate about whether ...
• The question of whether ... has caused much debate in [subject scope/ genre/ discipline] over the
years.
• (Much of) the current debate revolves around ...
• Debated much in [subject scope/ genre/ discipline] is whether ...
• What has caused many scholars to debate whether .... is ....
• The works by [X], [Y], and [Z] have notably contributed to trigger a debate on ...
•
 Discussion
• In this section / chapter, the discussion will point to ...
• The foregoing discussion implies that ...
• For the sake of discussion, I would like to argue that ...
• In this study/ thesis/ paper/ essay/ work, the question under discussion is ...
• In this paper, the discussion centers on ...
• [Issue] lies at the heart of the discussion on ...
• My intention here is to discuss/ bring into discussion in detail/ at length/ briefly/ succinctly ...
• Among the plausible explanations for these findings is that ...
• The most striking result to emerge from the data is that ...
• Interestingly, this correlation is related to ...
• The correlation between the views of [X] and [Y] is interesting/ worth examining/ worth highlighting
because ...
• The more surprising correlation is with the ...
• The single most striking observation to emerge from the data comparison was ...
Evidence

• The available evidence seems to suggest that ... / point to ...

• On the basis of the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest that ...
• There is overwhelming evidence for the notion that ...
• Further evidence supporting / against [X] may lie in the findings of [Y], who ...
• These results provide confirmatory evidence that ...
Stating the Ground(s)

• I will now summarize the ground covered in this chapter by ...

• On logical grounds, there is no compelling reason to argue that ...
• [X] takes a middle-ground position on [issue] and argues that ...
• On these grounds, we can [safely/ unreservedly] argue that ...
• [X]’s views are grounded on the assumption that ...
• On the basis that ..., we are forced to determine that ...
• Based on the ground that ..., we may confirm/ refute [X]’s view that ...
Literature

• Researchers have studied the effect of ...

• Previous studies have primarily concentrated on ...
• There have been several studies in the literature reporting ....
• A considerable amount of literature has been published on [subject]. These studies ....
• There is a large volume of published studies describing ....
• The first serious discussions and analyses of [subject/ issue] emerged during the [time
period] with ....
• During the past [number] years much more information has become available on ....
• In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on ....
• A large and growing body of literature has investigated ....
Literature contd.

• In recent years, several studies have focused on [subject],with special emphasis on ...
• Many researchers have argued that .....
• There is a consensus among [type of scholars] that ...
• Numerous studies have attempted to explain ....
• Recent evidence as provided by [X], [Y], and [Z] suggests that ....
• Several attempts have been made to ....
• Several studies have revealed that .....
• It has conclusively been shown that ....
• Previous research has shown that.....
• What studies have found is that ....
• More recent studies have confirmed that ....
Premise

• The main theoretical premise behind [X] is that ...

• [X] and [Y] share an important premise: ...
• [X] is premised on the assumption that ...
• The basic premises of [X]’s theory / argument are ...
• The arguments against [X]’s premise rest on [number] assumptions: ...
[X] [Y] = Author under discussion
Referring to Research

• This study draws on research conducted by [X, Y, and Z].

• Although there has been relatively little research on / into [subject], ...
• In the last [number] years, [subject/ discipline] research has provided ample support for the
assertion that ...
• Current research appears / seems to validate the view that ...
• Research on / into [subject] does not support the view that ...
• Further research in this area may include ... and ...
• Evidence for [subject] is borne out by research that shows ...
• There is insufficient research on / into [subject] to draw any firm conclusions about / on ...
• Among the multidisciplinary research that attempted to address this issue for decades, the
following can be recognized to be significant.
 Presenting a View

• The consensus view seems to be that ...

• [X] propounds/ advocates/ establishes/ confirms the view that ...
• Current research (does not) appear(s) to validate/ lend support to/ conforms to/ match/ fit the view that ...
• There have been dissenters to the view that ...
• The basis of [issue] has been recognized to be the view that ...
• The difference between [issue-1] and [issue-2] is not as clear-cut as popular views might suggest.
• The view that ... is in line with [X]’s detailed study titled ...
• I am not alone in my view that ...
• [X] puts forward/ states/ offers the view that ...
• [X]’s views rest on the assumption that ...
• The view of [X] appears to negate/ refute/ disaffirm/ invalidate [Y]’s view, which is ...
• The view of [Y] appears to support/ sustain/ affirm/ verify [Y]’s view, which is ...
•
List of References
• Academic Writing Guide by UTS LIBRARY. (February 2013).

• The Aṅguttara-nikāya Part I. Ekanipāta, Dukanipāta and Tikanipāta. Ed. The Rev. Richard Morris and Second
edition revised by A. K. Warder. London: PTS, 1961.

• Bailey, Stephen, Academic Writing, A Handbook for International Students (3 rd edition), Published in the
USA and Canada by Routledge, 2011.

• De Silva, Padmasiri. An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Counselling—Pathways of Mindfulness-

Based Therapies. England: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2014.

• The Majjhima-nikāya Vol. I. Ed. V. Trenckner. London: PTS, reprinted 1979.

• The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (A New Translation of The Majjhima Nikāya). Tr. Bhikkhu
Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009.

• The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (A Translation of the Aṅguttara Nikāya). Tr. Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston:
List of References contd.

• The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (A Translation of the Aṅguttara Nikāya). Tr. Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Wisdom

Publications, 2012.

• Nandamālābhivaṃsa, Ashin, (PhD). Thoughts of the Mind (Saiteiatwaymyar). Yangon: Aung Zambu Offset Press, 2010.

• Ñānananda, Bhikkhu. Concept and Reality in Early Buddhist Thought. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, reprinted

2003.

• De Silva, Padmasiri. An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Counselling—Pathways of Mindfulness-Based Therapies.

England: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2014.

• —— An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1979.

• Papañcasūdanī, Majjhimanikāyaṭṭhakathā of Buddhaghosācariya Part II. (Suttas 11–50). Ed. J. H. Woods and D. Kosambi.

London: PTS, reprinted 1979.

• Seneviratne, Rohana, Dr. SKT601-WEEK -TWELVE - Academic Writing: How to Start Sentences. Department of Classical

Languages, University of Peradeniya.

List of References contd.

• https://englist.com/en/what-is-academic-writing/
• https://www.eapfoundation.com/infographics/Writing/What
• https://www.scribbr.com/category/academic-writing/#:~:text=Academic%20writing%20aims%2
0to%20convey,relevant%20evidence%2C%20not%20just%20asserted
.
• https://www.enago.com/thesis-editing/blog/essential-skills-for-academic-writers
• https://www.barnsley.ac.uk/shops-services/higher-education-library/study-skills/constructing-p
aragraphs/
• https://www.academic-englishuk.com/paragraphing
• https://www.scribbr.com/verbs/tenses/
• https://paperpal.com/blog/researcher-resources/phd-pointers/academic-writing-styles
Recommended Books for Academic
Writing
• More Sentence Structures in John Morley’s Academic Phrasebank
• Academic Vocabulary in Use by Michael McCarthy Felicity O’Dell.
• Writing in Academic Style by UTS LIBRARY