Lec. 3 & 4.

Cell division –
mitosis,
meiosis and their significance
 Cell division
❖ The process of reproduction or formation of
new cells from the pre-existing cells
❖ Cell by which undergoes division - mother cell
❖ New cells which are formed by the process of
cell division - daughter cells
❖ In bacteria: cell division takes place by
binary fission (cleavage) of pre-existing cell
❖ In eukaryotes: mitosis and meiosis
MITOSIS
❖The term mitosis was coined by Flemming in 1882
❖Occurs in somatic cells - somatic cell division
❖Refers to the cell division which produces “two
identical daughter cells from the parent cell”
❖Daughter cells are similar to the mother cell in
shape, size and chromosome complement
❖Also known as homotypic or non segregational
division
❖Mitosis leads to
production of two
daughter cells from
a mother cell in each
cycle of cell division.
❖Equational division
❖ In plants: mitosis takes place in somatic organs like root
tip, stem tip and leaf base and leads to growth of
vegetative parts

❖ Segregation and recombination do not take place during

mitosis
Stages of mitosis
Cell cycle
❖The period in which one cycle of cell division is completed is
called cell cycle
Interphase: Stage occurs after telophase stage of the mitotic
division and before the onset of prophase. It consists of G1, S and
G2 sub phases
G1 is the first gap, S is the DNA synthesis and G2 again is a
second gap
G1: It is a pre-DNA replication phase
⮚This phase between telophase and S phase
⮚This is the longest phase which takes 12 hours in Vicia faba
⮚Protein and RNA synthesis take place during this phase
Cell Cycle
S: This phase comes after G1
⮚“DNA synthesis take place”
⮚This phase takes lesser time
than G1
⮚In Vicia faba - it takes “six
hours”
G2: This is the post-DNA
replication phase
⮚Last stage of interphase
⮚Protein and RNA synthesis
occur during this stage
⮚Takes 12 hours in Vicia faba
1. prophase, 2. metaphase, 3. anaphase and 4. telophase

Prophase
⮚ Prophase starts immediately after G2 stage of interphase
⮚Prophase is the first and longest phase of mitosis.
⮚ Early prophase: Chromosomes look like thin
thread and uncoiled

⮚Mid prophase: Become shortened, coiled and

more distinct

⮚ Late prophase: Chromosomes appear short

and thick
⮚Each chromosome has two identical longitudinal
splits called sister chromatids
⮚ “Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear
at the end of prophase”.
⮚Spindle fibre formation occurs.
Metaphase

❖Phase begins after prophase

❖Spindle fibers are formed

❖Sister chromatids of each chromosomes

are attached to the spindle fibres at
the point of centromere but their arms
are free

❖Chromosomes are arranged on

“metaphase plate or equatorial
plate”

❖Chromosomes are clearly visible at

metaphase
Anaphase
❖Splitting of centromere into two which allow the sister chromatids
to separate and move to opposite poles
❖Shortest phase

❖Chromatids suddenly
move apart “one goes to
one pole and other goes to
opposite pole

❖Separated sister
chromatids are called as new
chromosomes
Telophase
❖Chromosomes reaches the opposite poles
❖Spindle fibers begin to disintegrate
❖“New nuclear membrane” is formed at each pole covering the
chromosomes

❖“Nucleoli also reappear” at

each pole

❖Chromosomes again become

thin and long by uncoiling and
unfolding and “look like a single
thread”

❖Now the nucleus enters

interphase
Cytokinesis
❖Division of nucleus is known as karyokinesis
❖Followed by division of cytoplasm is known as cytokinesis

❖In plants: the division of cytoplasm takes place due to

“formation of cell plate”

❖Begins in the centre of

cell which moves
towards periphery in
both sides dividing the
cytoplasm into “two
daughter cells”
❖In animals: Separation of cytoplasm starts by furrowing of
plasma membrane in the equatorial region

❖Results in division of cytoplasm into “two daughter cells”

Significance of mitosis
❖Mitosis is essential for normal growth and development of
living organisms

❖It gives a definite shape to a specific organism

❖In plants: mitosis leads to formation of new parts: roots,

leaves, stems and branches
❖It also helps in repairing of damaged parts

❖In vegetatively propagated crops: sugarcane, sweet

potato, potato - mitosis helps in asexual propagation
❖Mitosis leads to production of identical progeny in such
crops
❖Mitosis is useful in maintaining the “purity of types” (leads to
production of identical daughter cells)
❖Does not allow segregation and recombination to occur”

❖In animals: it helps in continuous replacement of old tissues

with new ones such as “gut epithelium and blood cells”
 Meiosis

❖Process by which a cell divides to “produce four daughter

cells” each containing “half the number of chromosomes” of
the original cell

❖Also called as reduction division since it reduces

chromosomes from the diploid number (2n) to the haploid
number (n)

❖Two cycles of nuclear and

cytoplasmic divisions known as
Meiosis I (reduction division) and
Meiosis II (multiplication
division)
❖Single diploid cell gives rise to
four haploid cells
❖Term coined by Farmer and Moore
❖Also known as heterotypic,
segregational division (Meiosis I) and
equational division (Meiosis II)
❖Occurs in reproductive organs like anthers
and ovaries – leads to production of
gametes or spores
❖Confined to reproductive cells
Stage I Meiosis – reduction division
❖Prophase I
❖Leptotene
❖Zygotene
❖Pachytene
❖Diplotene
❖Diakinesis
❖Metaphase I
❖Anaphase I
❖Telophase I
Prophase I
Leptotene
❖Chromosomes look like thin, thread
and scattered throughout the
nucleus

❖Small amount RNA and protein

synthesis takes place
Prophase I
Zygotene
❖Chromosomes become shorter and thicker
❖Pairing between homologous chromosomes and the
process is called “synapsis”
❖Synaptonemal complex develops during this stage

Synaptonemal complex - Moses (1956)

1.One central element
2.Two lateral elements
3.Two transverse elements

✔ Essential for crossing over

❖Structure produced by pairing between two homologous chromosomes
known as bivalent

❖Bivalent contains four chromatids (or strands) called as four-strand or

tetrad stage
 Prophase I
Pachytene
❖Exchange of chromosomal segments between
non-sister chromatids of the homologous
chromosome is called crossing over
❖Small amount of DNA synthesis takes place
(0.3%)
❖Point of exchange of chromatid
during crossing over is called
chiasma
❖The homologous chromosomes
of each bivalents appear to be
attached with each other known as
chiasmata
Prophase I
Diplotene
❖Separation of homologous chromosomes takes place from one another which
begin from the centromere to end of the chromosomes.
❖This process is called Chiasma terminalisation

❖Nucleolus decreases in size

Diakinesis
❖This stage begins after the complete
terminalisation of chiasmata

❖Chromosomes are further condensed

become shorter and thicker and distributed
throughout the cell

❖Nucleolus and nuclear membrane

disappears

❖Spindle fibre formation occurs.

Metaphase I

❖Spindle fibres and metaphase plate become

organized

❖Homologous chromosome are lie on each

side of the equatorial plate and attached with
spindle fibres

❖Due to the contraction of spindle fibres

❖Centromere of each chromosome is structurally divide into two but functionally
centromeres of each chromosome are directed
the two parts behave as a single centromere
towards the opposite poles from the equator
.
Anaphase I
❖Centromeres hold sister chromatids
together

❖Homologous chromosome separate and

individual chromosome moves to opposite
poles

❖One chromosome from each bivalent

begins to migrate to one pole and other
move to opposite poles

❖ This leads to reduction of number of

chromosomes from diploid (2n) to haploid
(n) state.
Telophase I

❖ Nuclear envelope becomes organized and Nucleolus also reappears

❖Chromosome become uncoil and relax and regrouping of chromosomes occurs

Cytokinesis

❖ Cytoplasm of each cell divides into two halves by the end of first telophase

❖In each of the two daughter cells a single haploid nucleus is present

❖The two daughter cells do not separate but they stay together

❖This two-celled structure is known as a dyad

Second meiotic division (or) multiplication division
❖Period between the first and second meiotic divisions is called
interkinesis
❖Second meiotic division is equal to mitotic division
However Meiosis II differs from Mitosis in the following ways:
❖Interphase (interkinesis) prior to meiosis II is very short
❖It does not have ‘S’ period because each chromosome already
contains two chromatids.

❖Meiosis II deals with haploid

chromosome number whereas
mitosis deals with diploid
chromosome number
Prophase II

❖Chromosomes relatively
much more condensed

❖Chromosome number is
only ‘n’ while in mitosis it is
2n
❖ At the end of this stage
nucleolus and nuclear
envelope disappear
Metaphase II
❖ Nucleolus and nuclear envelope
are absent

❖Spindle apparatus are present

❖Centromeres of all the

chromosomes are arranged in a single
plane at equatorial plate

❖Two sister chromatids of each

chromosome are distinctly separate
from each other but they remain
attached at the centromere
Anaphase II
❖ Centromeres of chromosomes
divide longitudinal

❖Two sister chromatids of each

chromosome begin to separate and
move towards opposite poles

❖ Stage comes to an end when the

sister chromatids reach the
opposite poles
Telophase II
❖ Chromatids become uncoil and
appearance of a loose ball of thread
❖ Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
reappears

Cytokinesis
❖At the end of telophase II the
cytoplasm of each of the two cells of a
dyad divides into two parts

❖As a result one parent cell produces four haploid daughter cells

❖Four daughter cells produced from a parent cell are present together and
are together is known as tetrad
Significance of Meiosis
❖Meiosis results in the reduction of chromosome number by one half
after each division. Thus haploid gametes or sex cells are produced

❖After fertilization the original chromosome number of every species is

maintained which in turn serves to maintain the character of a species

❖Meiosis facilitates segregation and independent assortment of

chromosomes and genes

❖Meiosis (crossing over) results in a new combination of genetic

materials which is the basis of variation and has great evolutionary
significance

❖In sexually reproducing species meiosis for the continuity of generation

Identical and fraternal twins

Twins are of two types :

(1)fraternal twins and (2) identical twins

Fraternal twins are derived from two different zygotes resulting from
fertilization of two different eggs by separate sperms

❖ As a result: such twins have

different genotypes and
may be of different sexes
 ❖ Identical twins are derived from a single
zygote: an abnormal division of the embryo
very early in the development divides a single
embryo into two parts each of which develops
into a complete individual

❖ Identical twins therefore are always of

the same sex and have identical
genotypes.
❖ There are two approaches for estimating the effects of environment on
various human traits each suited for a different situation

(1) comparison of concordance between fraternal and identical twins

(2) comparison between identical twins reared apart

❖When a character is present in both the individuals of a twin pair: the pair
is classified as concordant and the condition is known as concordance

❖When the two individuals of a twin pair show different forms of the
character: the pair is classified as discordant and the situation is referred to
as discordance

❖The numbers of twin pairs showing concordance and discordance may

be recorded and expressed as per cent of the total number of pairs studied
this is known as the frequency of concordance and discordance