Course contents

Hort-501 PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 3(2-1)

Specific Objectives
To make students aware of principles and physiology of fruit production.
Theory
Introduction to fruit science, Source-sink relationship, Water relations, Fruit-
bud formation; initiation, development and controlling factors, Pollination and
fruit setting problems, Rest and dormancy, Biennial bearing; causes and
control, Fruit thinning, Parthenocarpy and seedlessness, Harvesting methods,
Use of plant growth regulators (PGRs), Bud variations and mutations.
Practical
Identification of various developmental stages of buds, Fruit bearing habits,
Training and pruning of important evergreen and deciduous fruit trees,
Thinning of fruits, Practices to control irregular bearing. Preparation of PGR
stock solutions and applications. Different methods to break seed dormancy.
 Books Recommended

• Chottopadhay, T.K. (Ed.). 2003. A Textbook on Pomology, Vol. I: Fundamentals of

Fruit Growing. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, New Delhi, India.
• Chottopadhay, T.K. 2000. A Textbook on Pomology, Vol. II: Tropical Fruits. Kalyani
Publishers, New Delhi.
• Yadav, P.K. 2007. Fruit Production Technology. International Book Distributing Co.
(Publishing Division), Lucknow, India.
• Dugger, B.M.2009. Plant physiology with Special Reference to Plant Production.
Biblio Bazaar, LLC.
• Jackson, D.I., N.E. Looney (Eds.). 1999. Temperate and Subtropical Fruit Production
(2nd Ed.). CAB International Publishing, Wallinford, U.K.
• Singh, A. 2003. Fruit Physiology and Production. Kalyani Publication, Ludhiana,
New Delhi, India.
• Singh, N.P. 2004. Basic Concepts of Fruit Science. International Book Distribution
Company (Publishing Division), Lucknow, India.
• Gardener, V.R. 2001. The Fundamentals of Fruit Production (5th Ed.). McGraw
Hill Book Company, USA.
PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCITON
Principle: A basic idea or rule that explains or controls
how something happens or works.
• An accepted or professed rule of action or conduct.
• an idea that forms the basis of something.
• a moral rule or belief that helps you know what is right
and wrong and that influences your actions
Fruit: Botanically, a ripened ovary; Horticulturally, the
edible fleshy or dry portion of a plant (normally
woody), whose development is closely associated with
flower.
 Introduction to fruit Science
• Pomology is the science and practice of growing, harvesting, storing,
processing and marketing of fruits.
Fruits: Botanically, a ripened ovary; Horticulturally, the edible fleshy or dry portion of a
plant (normally woody), whose development is closely associated with flower.

– Orcharding is the commercial production of fruits. (long lived

perennials)
– Vineyard: grape plantation while cultivation of grapes is called
viticulture
– Citrus groves: citrus plantation while citrus cultivation is called
citriculture
 Horticultural Classification
According to Leaf Persistence or Foliage Retention
• Deciduous: lose or shed leaves during dormant season.
• Evergreen: keep leaves and remains green year-round.
– Narrow leaf
– Broad leaf
According to Placement of Floral Sex Organs
• Hermaphroditic: Plants having both male and female organs in same flower.
• Monoecious: Plants having separate male and female flowers on same plant.
• Dioecious: Plants with male and female flowers on separate plants.
According to Climate:
• 1. Temperate: Cool winter and mild summer. Temperate are mostly deciduous and
require low (chilling) temperature for flowering, e.g. apple, pear, apricot, cherry,
peach, plum, almond.
• 2. Subtropical: Cool winter and hot summer. Subtropical fruits can tolerate low
temperature (frost) and also survive very hot temperatures (even above 40˚C) e.g.
citrus, guava, fig, date, olive.
• 3. Tropical: Same season (humid) year round (summer but not very hot: not more
than 35˚C). Tropical fruits are very sensitive to low temperatures, e.g. mango,
avocado, banana, papaya, coconut, pineapple.
Nuts: Nuts are actually edible seeds of fruits; they may be temperate or tropical

Temperate: almond, chestnut, filbert, pecan, pistachio

Tropical: Brazil nut, cashew, macadamia

• Status of Fruit Production in Pakistan

• Pakistan is an agriculture-friendly country where climatic conditions help fruits
and vegetables to grow naturally. It is for this reason that around 40 different
kinds of vegetables and more than 30 fruits of different types are grown in four
seasons, year round.
• The major fruits grown in Pakistan include citrus, mango , dates, guava, apple,
banana, apricot, grapes, almonds, peach, plum and pomegranate which are
transported in all regions of the country as well as exported abroad. The fruits are
being exported to European and Middle Eastern countries, thereby earning
significant foreign reserves for the nation. Pakistan produces both citrus fruits as
well as temperate fruits like almonds and apricots, which are grown in the
northern regions.
• In terms of market, fruits have taken the lead with a 40% share and vegetables
followed this with a 38% share while fruits and vegetable juices contributed
another 8%. Thus together fruits and vegetables make up around 86% of the
horticulture market
 AREA UNDER FRUIT – PAKISTAN

(Hectares)
FRUIT 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Citrus 192832 192230 186913 183849 181650
Mango 170714 170299 169483 167899 158659
Banana 28171 28703 29197 30031 29730
Apple 100246 96928 95260 88589 82041
Grapes 15360 14775 14719 15724 15675
Pomegranate 9688 9007 7293 7270 7330
Guava 65480 70026 69704 64938 56141
Dates 91145 97107 97713 98415 99032
Apricot 26950 25746 24940 22715 18629
Peach 13988 13819 14385 14350 15032
Pear 1808 1820 1776 1736 1697
Plum 7019 6949 6200 6127 6074
Almond 10624 10465 10268 9888 9602
Fig 121 90 72 77 67
Jaman 1114 954 923 914 870
Litchy 274 321 320 332 355
Phalsa 1193 1170 1237 1186 1241
Walnut 1686 1603 1655 1705 1739
Ber 5129 5082 4943 4369 6528
Loquat 1415 1419 1428 1083 1501
Mulberry 459 442 443 827 493
Strawbery 179 227 274 285 387
Chikoo 1737 1703 1755 1760 1755
Coconut 1493 1507 1486 1445 1443
Cherry 1128 1063 1176 995 992
Pistachio 193 193 192 176 171
Papaya 1404 1370 1472 1555 1663
Percimen 3147 3156 3138 3060 3103
Melons 37433 37295 37750 37776 35358
Others(K+R) 9437 9035 8860 10872 7670
Total 801567 804504 794975 779948 746628
Source:- Provincial Crop Reporting Service Centres
 PRODUCTION OF FRUIT – PAKISTAN

(Tonnes)
FRUIT 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-182018-19
Citrus 2395550 2344086 2180037 2351386 2468671
Mango 1716882 1636473 1784089 1735000 1722683
Banana 118044 134634 137449 140415 135660
Apple 616748 620481 669912 564693 543645
Grapes 66036 65854 66192 66987 68471
Pomegranate 42641 40125 37692 36840 37613
Guava 488017 522573 547647 586070 547546
Dates 537204 467756 438989 540606 420127
Apricot 170504 172933 165918 141721 107986
Peach 66792 70750 71639 72536 87864
Pear 17012 16569 16452 15926 15642
Plum 54304 54634 45863 46423 47701
Almond 21881 21451 21747 20615 19994
Fig 459 423 248 254 225
Jaman 6364 5453 5076 5036 4811
Litchy 1644 1755 1752 1844 2024
Phalsa 4063 3848 4029 3978 4209
Walnut 14831 13751 14273 14618 14862
Ber 24635 24320 23970 22167 22716
Loquat 8823 9900 9970 10306 10523
Mulberry 2100 2134 1952 1804 1786
Strawbery 609 767 940 986 795
Chikoo 6677 6782 6749 6914 7104
Coconut 10030 10040 9867 9765 9802
Cherry 2083 2140 2067 1964 2096
Pistachio 659 706 667 654 695
Papaya 6743 6185 6548 7201 37409
Percimen 26760 26879 26763 25083 25714
Melons 544966 537198 540379 551886 546006
Others(K+R) 49899 46686 45455 64556 49197
Total 7022960 6867286 6884331 7048234 6963577
Source:- Provincial Crop Reporting Service Centres
 Source sink relation
During photosynthesis carbon compounds are synthesized in plants and algae Which are used
as Food and raw materials for industry.

Carbohydrates → Sucrose → Starch

Enzymes resposible for fixition of C.= RuBisCO (Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase) and
PEPcarboxylase (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase)
Photosynthesis → C – Assimilation → C- partitioning (Affected by the driving force)
• C- assimilation is the conversion of inorganic C to organic compounds by living organisms.
• Carbon assimilation and partitioning of the newly assimilated carbon (Determinants of crop
yield).
• The utilization of photoassimilates also affects the synthesis of photoassimilates. (Driving
force).
• Decreased source to sink ratio increases per unit synthesis of photoassimilates.
 Source and sink relation
Carbon fixed/photosynthate
• Directly utilized by source cells for their own respiration
• Exported (Utilized for growth or stored).
Plants organs may be divided into source or sink organs
Source organs: photosynthetically active and are net exporters of
photoassimilates e.g. matured leaves.
Sink organs: photosynthetically inactive or produce less photosynthate and
are net importers of photoassimilates.
Types of Sinks:
• Metabolic/Utilization sinks: metabolically active, meristem, immature
leaves.
• Storage sinks: where the imported carbohydrates are deposited in
different forms (starch, sucrose, proteins etc.) as in tubers, seeds and roots
 Source and Sink
• Strengths of source: size, number, distance
from sink, age, capacity for photosynthesis.
• Strengths of sink: size, Number, distance from
source, driving strengths
Transportation of photoassimilates
• Sucrose is the main compound found in phloem
sieve tubes complex which means
photoassimilates are mainly transported in the
form of sucrose however, we may find raffinose
and polyols (sorbitol and mannitol) in the phloem.
• Transportation may be active or passive (mass flow
from higher to lower concentration of
photoassimilates)
• Transportation may be symplastic or apoplastic
 Factors affecting photosynthate
translocation
Abiotic factors
• Water deficiency (Reduces growth and stimulate hydrolysis of starches to sucrose and hexoses thus increses sucrose in
source and results in lower photosynthetic activities)
• Mineral deficiency (Affect partintioning of C, Allocation of more C to organs and less to sink) more allocation towards
roots.
1. Nitrate limitation (Reduce RuBisCO amount, increase sucrose/sugar in leaves, increases root to shoot ratio thus
reduces photosythesis rate)
2. Phosphorus limitation (phosphorus limitation induces increased photo-assimilate allocation to the roots and an
adaptation of the root system architecture. Root hairs initiate and elongate in response to phosphate starvation,
increasing the root surface area)
3. Mg and K deficiency (Metabolic processes and reactions that are influenced by Mg include chlorophyll formation,
photosynthetic carbon dioxide fixation, photo-assimilate phloem loading and partitionin). Accumulation of
carbohydrates in leaves is a common phenomenon in Mg-deficient plants. Mg deficiency reduces leaf growth more
than root growth and impacts on sucrose export to the roots). K + is the major cation in the phloem. Therefore, changes
in its amounts can have dramatic effects on phloem functions. The high sugar concentration measured in the leaves of
K-deficient plants does not promote any increase in root sugar content or growth.
4. NaCl (Little is known about the effects of salt stress on sucrose translocation into the phloem. Salt stress has an
inhibitory effect on photosynthesis)
• Light (Light has a direct effect on phloem loading through photosynthesis via the synthesis of sucrose and by providing
energy.)
• Low temperature (biochemical reaction will be doubled when temperature is increased by 10C
• CO2 (increasing CO2 Increse rate of photosyntheisis and carbohydrate synthesis. C is a limiting factor in photosynthesis)
Pollutants (Cadmium,Ozone and Sulpher dioxide) Ozone causes a series of negative effects on vegetation such as decreased
photosynthesis and growth, enhanced premature senescence and reduced crop yield. O 3 alters chloroplast membranes
and decreases photosynthesis by reducing RuBisCO activity and concentration, which suggests that its main target is the
photosynthetic apparatus. Thus the availability of photo-assimilates for sink organs is decreased
• Mechanical demage to phloem
Biotic factors
• Viruses
• Aphids use their stylets to reach sugar in
plants. These are victors of viruses
• Parasitic plants such as cuscuta (hemiparasites
and Holoparasitic plants)
• Mutualistic and pathogenic microbes
 Strategies to increase yield
• One strategy is to increase source capacity
namely the rate of carbon export. Potential targets to
improve source capacity have been proposed including:
(a) the rate of photosynthesis,
(b) the rate of carbon translocation via specific carrier
proteins,
(c) Partitioning of photoassimilates between anabolism
and catabolism
(d) The rate of sucrose synthesis
• The other strategy is to increase sink strength which has been
considered as a product of sink size and sink activity .
• Sink size is genetically determined in some plants e.g. several
wheat varieties while it is more flexible in case of tuber- or storage
root-forming plants like potato or sugar beet.
• With respect to sink activity, there are several strategies to create a
chemical gradient as well as an osmotic gradient between the sinks
and sieve elements to increase the amount of photoassimilates
imported into the sink tissue.
• For instance accelerated utilization of the imported sucrose for
production of storage compounds like starch (Stark et al., 1992), or
• conversion of sucrose into a compound no longer in equilibrium
with sucrose
 Assignment #1
• Loading and unloading of photosynthate
• Apoplastic and Symplastic movement of
photoassimilates in plants
 Flower Bud Formation
A compact knoblike growth “may be having shortened nodes and internodes” on a plant that
develops into a leaf, flower, or shoot.
Buds may be terminal (apical), lateral (axillary) or adventitious and is covered by scales (sheath).
Though some may be hairy providing additional protection and some naked (without scales)

1. Initiation of flower bud in temperate species:

• Apple, pear, peach plum, cherry etc.
• Bud initiation starts between late spring and late summer during the year preceding the
bloom.
• It happens when the branches reach certain maturity stage and having matured leaves.
• After floral parts are completed the bud enters dormancy due to natural growth retardants
or loss of growth stimulating hormones, during mid summer and late autumn and will not
open even on provision of favorable environment. Temperate fruits buds need chilling
temperature for reversal from dormancy. Excess chilling may stop flower opening.
• Flowers starts when the new branches get some leaves matured in most of the plants.
• Flowering depends on C and N ratio, water content and plant health. Moderate water stress
induces flowering.
 Flower Bud Formation
• Bud formation in subtropical fruit plants.
Olive and citrus
Olive thrives well in Chilling temperature above -9 oC during winter.
Freezing days at the later stage/end of winter is required for flower
induction i.e. conversion of vegetative growing point into flower buds in
olive. Without freezing temperature all the buds will remain vegetative.
whereas in citrus flowers start in mid winter and clearly appear after a
month. In cool summer and moderate winter some of citrus varieties bear
flowers though out the year. Normally blooming is in spring. In tropics
citrus bud initiation continue year round (oranges, lemons and pomelos.
• Bud formation in tropical fruit plants.
Mango, pineapple etc. lengthy dry or cool period induces flowering in
mango. late winter to early spring. Ethepon spray induces flowering in
pineapple.
 Pollination

• Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma through a pollinating agent.
Types
Autogamy or Self-pollination
Pollination within a flower or between flowers on the same plant.
Allogamy or cross-pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a
flower on the other plant of the same specie or cultivar.
Pollinators
Insects/Entomophily
Wind/Anemophily
Water/Hydrophily
Birds/Ornithophily
Animals/Zoophily
 Gametogenesis
• The formation of male and female gametes.
• Microsporogenesis: the formation of pollen grains
Activation of central cells in pollen sac → microsporocytes
or pollen grain mother cell → meiosis-I, forming 2 haploid
cells → meiosis-II making a total of 4 haploid nuclei →
cleavage of cytoplasm making 4 separate compartments
or pollen cells→ the original cell wall degenerates and
each nuclei make an exine and intine around it → the
nucleus of each pollen grain divides into one vegetative or
tube nucleus and one generative nucleus.
Microsporogenesis
 Gametogenesis
• Megasporogenesis: the formation of female reproductive
cells
Activation and enlargement of the nucellus cell in the ovule →
megasporocyte/embryo sac mother cell → meiosis-I takes
place forming 2haploid nucleus → meiosis-II 4haploid cells →
the 3 megaspores degenerate → the lowest/bottom one
divide mitotically 3 times making 8 cells out of which 3 migrate
into the chalazale end known as antipodal cells, 3 into the
micropylar end among which the one at the center is the egg
the remaining 2 are the synergids. The remaining 2 known as
polar nuclei, fuse at the center making a diploid nuclei.
Gametogenesis
 Fertilization
• The union of male and female gametes (sperm and ovum)
The pollen grain on stigma germinate → The intine makes a
pollen tube → the receptive stigma secrets viscous
materials allowing the growth of pollen tube into the style
→ the vegetative nucleus disintegrates and generative
nucleus divide mitotically into two male gametes or sperms
→ the pollen tube grows into the micropylar end releasing
the two sperms into the embryo sac → one gamete fuses
with egg or ovum which is called fertilization, making
embryo, the other fuses with polar nuclei making
endosperm and this process is called double fertilization
Fertilization