Introduction of Networks

Types of Networks: Network Components,

Categories, LAN Standards and Inter-Network

Wireless Networking and Emerging Networking Technologies

Data Networks: Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), Digital Subscribers Line (DSL),

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), etc.

Network Software: Network Operating Systems, Domain Name System and Network

Management Systems, etc.

OSI Network Model and TCP/IP Reference Model

NETWORK
Message:

•The information (data) that must be expressed is the message. Information in the form of text, numbers, images, music, and
video is very common.

Sender:

•The data message's sender is the sending device. It might be a computer, workstation, phone, video camera, or other device.

Receiver:

•The device that receives the message is called the receiver. It might be a computer, workstation, phone, television, or another
device.

Transmission Medium:

•The physical path taken by a message as it travels from sender to receiver is known as the transmission medium. Twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, Fiber-optic cable, and radio waves are a few types of transmission media.

Protocol:

• Exchange of information is governed by a set of rules known as a protocol. It stands for a compromise between the communicators.
Two devices may be connected yet incapable of interacting without a protocol.
FLOW OF DATA
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
NETWORK TYPES
 WIRELESS NETWORKING
AND
EMERGING NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES
 WIRELESS NETWORKS

Radio Waves:
• Frequency Range: 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
• Usage: Commonly used for long-range communication
like cellular networks (4G, 5G), Wi-Fi, AM/FM radio,
television signals, and Bluetooth.
• Advantages: Can cover large distances, penetrate
walls and buildings, and are relatively low energy.
• Drawbacks: Susceptible to interference from other
devices and environmental factors. Lower bandwidth
compared to higher frequency waves.
Microwaves:
• Frequency Range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz (a subset of radio
waves, often between 2 GHz and 40 GHz for
communication).
• Usage: Used for Wi-Fi (e.g., 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands),
satellite communications, radar, and microwave ovens.
• Advantages: Supports higher data rates and can carry a
large amount of information over long distances.
• Drawbacks: Requires line of sight for most applications,
and signals can be blocked or attenuated by objects like
walls, trees, and buildings.
Infrared:
• Frequency Range: 300 GHz to 400 THz (above
microwaves in frequency).
• Usage: Used in short-range communication systems
like TV remotes, infrared sensors, and some data
transfer devices.
• Advantages: High speed and low interference since it
doesn’t interfere with other radio signals.
• Drawbacks: Requires a direct line of sight, and its
range is limited. Cannot penetrate walls or obstacles.
 EMERGING NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

Wireless Communication Growth

• Rapid growth of wireless communication technology.
• Increased demand for wireless device connectivity.
• Wireless LANs are common in public spaces, including:
• University campuses
• Library buildings
• Other public areas
Two Key Wireless LAN Technologies
• IEEE 802.11 (Wireless Ethernet)
• Bluetooth (for smaller wireless LANs)
• Focus on the physical and data link layers of these
technologies.
Wireless LAN (WLAN)
• Defined by IEEE 802.11 standard.
• A type of Local Area Network (LAN) using high-
frequency radio waves.
• Replaces or supplements wired LANs.
Advantages of Wireless LANs (WLAN)
• Productivity Gains: Offers untethered network and
internet access.
• Fast & Easy Setup: No need for cables to install
devices.
• Deployment Versatility: Ideal for temporary setups or
in areas where cables can't be laid.
• Cost-Effective: Reduces installation costs.
• Scalability: Easier expansion and reconfiguration
compared to wired networks.
Bluetooth
• Wireless LAN solution for connecting devices like:
• Phones, Laptops, Computers, Cameras, Printers.
• Forms an ad hoc network called a piconet.
• Limited in size and complexity.
• Can link to the Internet if one device supports it.
Uses of Bluetooth Technology
• Connects computers to peripheral devices.
• Utilized in library security systems to link sensors to
controllers.
• Allows laptops to sync at conferences.
DATA NETWORKS:
INTEGRATED
SERVICES DIGITAL
NETWORK (ISDN)
DIGITAL
SUBSCRIBERS LINE
(DSL)
ASYNCHRONOUS
TRANSFER MODE
(ATM)
 Data networks like Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN), Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), and
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) serve a variety of
important roles in modern communication systems, each
supporting specific types of data transmission and
applications
`
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
• Definition: A set of communication standards for transmitting voice,
video, data, and other network services over traditional telephone
lines.
• Types of ISDN:
• Basic Rate Interface (BRI): 2 data channels (64 kbps) + 1 signaling
channel (16 kbps).
• Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Used for larger enterprises; multiple data
channels (23 or 30).
• Applications:
• Video conferencing
• Internet access
• Voice and data transmission simultaneously.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
• Definition: A family of technologies providing high-
speed Internet access via telephone lines without
interrupting voice service.
• Types of DSL:
• Asymmetric DSL (ADSL): Higher download speeds than
upload.
• Symmetric DSL (SDSL): Equal download and upload
speeds.
• Applications:
• High-speed Internet for homes and businesses.
• Video streaming, online gaming, and video conferencing.
 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL)

• Set of technologies collectively referred to as xDSL,

including:
• ADSL (Asymmetric DSL)
• VDSL (Very High-Bit-Rate DSL)
• HDSL (High-Bit-Rate DSL)
• SDSL (Symmetric DSL)
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
• Asymmetric bit rate: Higher speed in downstream
(Internet to user) than upstream.
• Designed for residential users, not suitable for
business customers needing equal bandwidth in both
directions.
• Utilizes existing local loops, achieving higher data
rates by removing the 4 kHz filter at the telephone
company.
ADSL Lite (Splitterless ADSL):
• Designed to eliminate the need for splitters and new wiring.
• Modem plugs directly into a telephone jack.
• Lower performance than ADSL: 1.5 Mbps downstream, 512
kbps upstream.
• Voice signal errors can interfere with data transmission.
High-Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL)
• HDSL:
• Developed as an alternative to the T-1 line (1.544 Mbps).
• Uses 2B1Q encoding for better attenuation resistance.
• Supports data rates up to 1.544 Mbps without repeaters for
distances up to 12,000 ft (3.86 km).
• Requires two twisted pairs for full-duplex transmission.
Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL)
• SDSL:
• One twisted-pair version of HDSL.
• Provides full-duplex symmetric communication (768 kbps
in each direction).
• Suitable for businesses needing equal bandwidth for upstream
and downstream data.
• Can be considered an alternative to ADSL for commercial use.
Very High-Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL)
• VDSL:
• Similar to ADSL but supports much higher speeds over
short distances.
• Uses DMT modulation with coaxial, fiber-optic, or twisted-
pair cable.
• Supports upstream rates between 25 and 55 Mbps over
distances of 3000 to 10,000 ft.
• Downstream rate typically 3.2 Mbps.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Definition: A high-speed networking standard designed to
handle data, voice, and video transmission.
• Key Features:
• Cell-based technology using fixed-size packets (53 bytes).
• Supports both constant and variable bit rates.
• High-speed (up to multi-gigabit speeds).
• Applications:
• Backbone networks for ISPs and telecoms.
• Video conferencing and real-time data transfer.
• WAN (Wide Area Network) connectivity for enterprises.
NETWORK SOFTWARE,
NETWORK OPERATING
SYSTEMS, DOMAIN NAME
SYSTEM AND NETWORK
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
NETWORK
SOFTWARE
 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS

The programme that a server uses to manage security, data, users, groups,
applications, and other networking tasks is known as a networking operating system
(NOS).
These are the most widely used network operating systems:
 Microsoft Windows client/ server,

 UNIX and Linux, client/ server

 Mac OS X

 Novell NetWare.
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM
 NETWORK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Network management involves monitoring, testing, configuring, and

troubleshooting network components.

The goal is to ensure a smooth, efficient network with a predetermined level of

service.
[Link] Management
[Link] Management
[Link] Management
[Link] Management
 Configuration Management
• Network Configuration: Networks consist of hundreds
of units linked physically or logically.
• Changing Configuration: User groups, desktop
versions, and software applications can change.
• Two Subsystems:
• Reconfiguration: Ensures network components are correctly
configured.
• Documentation: Maintains records of all configurations.
 Fault Management
• Networks consist of hundreds or thousands of
components that must work together.
• Two Subsystems:
• Reactive Fault Management: Identifies, isolates, and fixes
faults when they occur.
• Proactive Fault Management: Prevents faults before they
occur, e.g., by replacing components before end-of-life.
 Performance Management
• Ensures optimal network operation.
• Key Parameters:
• Capacity
• Throughput
• Response Time
 Security Management
• Controls network access based on predefined policies.
 OSI NETWORK MODEL AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a

conceptual framework used to understand and standardize
how different networking protocols interact in a
telecommunications system.

• It was developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) in the 1980s.

• The OSI model divides the communication process into seven

layers, each with specific functions and responsibilities.
 7 Layers of the OSI Model
[Link] Layer (Layer 1)
[Link]: This layer is responsible for the physical connection
between devices. It defines the hardware elements, such as cables,
switches, and the electrical signals used to transmit data.
Examples: Ethernet, USB, Bluetooth, network interface cards (NICs),
modems.
[Link] Link Layer (Layer 2)
[Link]: Manages the node-to-node data transfer between two
directly connected nodes. It is responsible for error detection and
correction and ensures that data is successfully transmitted over the
physical link.
Examples: MAC (Media Access Control) addresses, Ethernet (MAC
sublayer), Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).
3. Network Layer (Layer 3)
[Link]: Handles the routing of data packets from the source
to the destination. It is responsible for addressing, packet
forwarding, and path determination.
Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), routers, ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol).
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)
[Link]: Ensures reliable data transfer between systems. It
handles end-to-end communication, flow control, error
correction, and retransmission of lost packets.
Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
5. Session Layer (Layer 5)
1. Function: Manages the sessions or connections between applications. It
establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between devices.
Examples: NetBIOS, RPC (Remote Procedure Call), session tokens.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

2. Function: Responsible for data translation, encryption, and compression. This layer
ensures that data sent from one system's application layer can be understood by
another system's application layer.
Examples: SSL/TLS encryption, JPEG, GIF, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

3. Function: Provides the interface for communication between network services and
end-user applications. It handles protocols that interact with the software used by
end users.
Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, Telnet, SNMP.
 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

• The TCP/IP reference model is a more practical and

simplified framework than the OSI model, specifically
designed for the protocols used in the Internet and
other networks.
• It consists of four layers that define how data is
transmitted across interconnected networks.
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core
protocols of the Internet.
 The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP
Model
[Link] Interface (or Link) Layer:
1. Function: This layer is responsible for the physical transmission of data over the
network and defines how the data is physically sent across the network (similar to
the OSI model’s Physical and Data Link layers).
2. Responsibilities:
1. Network hardware interaction
2. Framing of data packets
3. Addressing and error detection for the link
3. Protocols/Technologies: Ethernet, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol), Frame Relay, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
[Link] Layer:
1. Function: Handles the logical transmission of data across packet-switched networks.
It is responsible for addressing, routing, and delivering data between networks.
2. Responsibilities:
1. Packet forwarding and routing
2. IP addressing
3. Fragmentation of data packets
3. Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), IGMP
(Internet Group Management Protocol).
3. Transport Layer:
1. Function: Provides end-to-end communication services for applications. This layer ensures that
data is transferred reliably or unreliably, depending on the protocol used, and manages flow
control, error handling, and retransmission of lost data.
2. Responsibilities:
1. Reliable/unreliable delivery
2. Flow control
3. Error correction and retransmission
3. Protocols:
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-oriented protocol that ensures data is delivered in
order and without errors.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless protocol that provides faster, but unreliable, data transmission
with no guarantees of delivery or order.
4. Application Layer:
4. Function: This layer is where high-level protocols interact with user applications to provide
services like file transfer, email, and remote login. It encompasses the responsibilities of the top
three layers of the OSI model (Application, Presentation, and Session layers).
5. Responsibilities:
1. Data formatting and translation
2. Application services such as web browsing, file transfers, and email
3. User authentication and privacy protocols
6. Protocols:
1. HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
4. DNS (Domain Name System)
5. Telnet, SSH, SNMP, and more
Layer Mapping: OSI vs. TCP/IP

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Application (Layer 7) Application
Presentation (Layer 6)
Session (Layer 5)
Transport (Layer 4) Transport
Network (Layer 3) Internet
Data Link (Layer 2) Network Interface
Physical (Layer 1)