Context-Free Grammars

Using grammars in parsers

Chapter 3 Context-free
21/10/2021 Grammar 1
 Outline
 Parsing Process
 Grammars
 Context-free grammar
 Backus-Naur Form (BNF)
 Parse Tree and Abstract Syntax Tree
 Ambiguous Grammar
 Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF)

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 2

 Parsing Process
 Call the scanner to get tokens
 Build a parse tree from the stream of t
okens
 A parse tree shows the syntactic structure
of the source program.
 Add information about identifiers in the
symbol table
 Report error, when found, and recover
from the error

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 3

 Grammar
 a quintuple (V, T, P, S) where
 V is a finite set of nonterminals, containing S,
 T is a finite set of terminals,
 P is a set of production rules in the form of β w
here  and β are strings over V UT , and
 S is the start symbol.
Example
G= ({S, A, B, C}, {a, b, c}, P, S)
P= { SSABC
SAbc
S ab}
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 4
 Context-Free Grammar
 a quintuple (V, T, P, S) where
 V is a finite set of nonterminals, containin
g S,
 T is a finite set of terminals,
 P is a set of production rules in the form o
f β where  is in V and β is in (V UT )*, a
nd
 S is the start symbol.

 Any string in (V U T)* is called a senten

tial form.
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 5
 Examples
EEOE S  SS
E  (E) S  (S)S
E  id S  ()
O+ S  
O-
O*
O/

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 6

 Backus-Naur Form (BNF)
 Nonterminals are in < >.
 Terminals are any other symbols.
 ::= means .
 | means or.
 Examples:
<E> ::= <E><O><E>| (<E>) | ID
<O> ::= + | - | * | /

<S> ::= <S><S> | (<S>)<S> | () | 

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 7

 Derivation
 A sequence of replacement of a substri
ng in a sentential form.
Definition
 Let G = (V, T, P, S ) be a CFG, , ,  b
e strings in (V U T)* and A is in V.

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 8

 Examples
S  SS | (S)S | () | E  E O E | (E) | id
S O+|-|*|/
 SS E
 (S)SS EOE
(S)S(S)S  (E) O E
 (S)S(())S  (E O E) O E
 ((S)S)S(())S  ((E O E) O E) O E
 ((S)())S(())S  ((id O E)) O E) O E
 ((())())S(())S  ((id + E)) O E) O E
 ((())()) (())S  ((id + id)) O E) O E
 ((())())(())  ((id + id) * id) + id
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 9
 Leftmost Derivation Rightmost Derivation
 Each step of the derivat  Each step of the derivat
ion is a replacement of ion is a replacement of t
the leftmost nontermin he rightmost nontermin
als in a sentential form. als in a sentential form.

E E
 EOE  EOE
 (E) O E  E O id
 (E O E) O E  E * id
 (id O E) O E  (E) * id
 (id + E) O E  (E O E) * id
 (id + id) O E  (E O id) * id
 (id + id) * E  (E + id) * id
 (id + id) * id  (id + id) * id
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 10
 Language Derived from Grammar
 Let G = (V, T, P, S ) be a CFG.
 A string w in T * is derived from G if S *

Gw.


 A language generated by G, denoted b

y L(G), is a set of strings derived from
G.
 L(G) = {w| S *
G w}.

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 11

 Right/Left Recursive
 A grammar is a left r  A grammar is a right
ecursive if its produc recursive if its produ
tion rules can gener ction rules can gene
ate a derivation of th rate a derivation of t
e form A * A X. he form A * X A.
 Examples:  Examples:
 E  E O id | (E) | id  E  id O E | (E) | id

 E  F + id | (E) | id  E  id + F | (E) | id

F  E * id | id F  id * E | id
 E 
F + id  E 
id + F

E * id + id 
id + id * E
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 12
 Parse Tree
 A labeled tree in which
 the interior nodes are labeled by nontermi
nals
 leaf nodes are labeled by terminals
 the children of an interior node represent
a replacement of the associated nontermi
nal in a derivation
 corresponding toEa derivation
id + F
i * E
d
i
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 13
 Parse Trees and Derivations
E 1
E 
E+E (1)
E 2 E 3 
id + E (2)
+
E 4
E 5 
id + E * E (3)
i *
d i i

id + id * E (4)
d numberid
Preorder

id + id * id (5)
ng E1 E 
E+E (1)
E 2

E+E*E (2)
E 5
+

E + E * id (3)
i E 4
* E 3

E + id * id (4)
d i i 
id + id * id (5)
d
Reverse of postorder d
numbering
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 14
 Grammar: Example
List of parameters in: <Fdef>  function id ( <argList> )
 Function definition <argList>  id , <arglist> | id
 function sub(a,b,c) <Fcall>  id ( <parList> )
<parList>  <par> ,<parlist>| <par>
 Function call
<par>  id | const
 sub(a,1,2)
<argList>
 id , <arglist> <Fdef>  function id ( <argList> )
 id, id , <arglist> <argList>  <arglist> , id | id
 …  (id ,)* id <Fcall>  id ( <parList> )
<argList> <parList>  <parlist> ,<par>| <par>
 <arglist> , id <par>  id | const
<arglist> , id, id
 …  id (, id )*
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 15
 Grammar: Example
List of parameters <Fdef>  function id ( <argList> )|
 If zero parameter is function id ( )
allowed, then ? <argList>  id , <arglist> | id
<Fcall>  id ( <parList> ) | id ( )
<parList>  <par> ,<parlist>| <par>
<par>  id | const

<Fdef>  function id ( <argList> )

<argList>  id , <arglist> | id | 
<Fcall>  id ( <parList> )
<parList>  <par> ,<parlist>| <par>
<par>  id | const
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 16
 Abstract Syntax Tree
 Representation of actual source tokens
 Interior nodes represent operators.
 Leaf nodes represent operands.

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 17

 Abstract Syntax Tree for Expression

E
+
E + E
id1 *
E E
id * id id3
1 id id 2
2 3

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 18

 Abstract Syntax Tree for If Statement

st

ifStatement
if

if ( ex ) st elsePa
rt tru st return
p
else st e
tru
e
return

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 19

 Ambiguous Grammar
 A grammar is ambiguous if it can gene
rate two different parse trees for one st
ring.
 Ambiguous grammars can cause incon
sistency in parsing.

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 20

 Example: Ambiguous Grammar
E  E+E
E  E-E
E  E*E
E  E/E
E  id
E E

E + E *
E E
E E E E
id1 * + id3

id id3 id id2
2 1

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 21

 Ambiguity in Expressions
 Which operation is to be done first?
 solved by precedence
 An operator with higher precedence is done bef
ore one with lower precedence.
 An operator with higher precedence is placed in

a rule (logically) further from the start symbol.

 solved by associativity
 If an operator is right-associative (or left-associ
ative), an operand in between 2 operators is as
sociated to the operator to the right (left).
 Right-associated : W + (X + (Y + Z))

 Left-associated : ((W + X) + Y) + Z

21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 22

 Precedence
E
EE+E E

EE-E E + E E * E
EE*E E E
E E id3
id1 * +
EE/E
E  id id id3 id id2
2 1
EE+E E
EE-E E + E
EF F
F
FF*F
id F * F
FF/F 1
F  id id id
2 3
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 23
 Precedence (cont’d)
EE+E|E-E|F E

FF*F|F/F|X F

X  ( E ) | id F * F

X F * F

( E ) X X
(id1 + id2) * id3 * id4
id id
E + E
3 4
F F

X X

id id
1 2
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 24
 Associativity
E
 Left-associative operat F
ors
F / X
EE+F|E-F|F
FF*X|F/X|X F * X id4
X  ( E ) | id X id3
( E )

E + F
(id1 + id2) * id3 / id4
F X
= (((id1 + id2) * id3) / id4
) X id2
id1
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 25
 Ambiguity in Dangling Else
St  IfSt | ...
IfSt  if ( E ) St | if ( E ) St else St
{ if (0)
E0|1|… { if (1) St }
{ if (0) else St }
{ if (1) St else St } } IfSt
IfSt

if ( E ) St if ( E ) St else St

0 IfSt
0 IfSt

if ( E ) St else St if ( E ) St

1 1
21/10/2021 Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar 26
Disambiguating Rules for Dangling E
lse
St 
MatchedSt | UnmatchedSt
UnmatchedSt 
if (E) St |
if (E) MatchedSt else Unmatched St
St
MatchedSt 
if (E) MatchedSt else MatchedSt UnmatchedSt
|
... if ( E ) S
E t
0|1 MatchedSt

 if (0) if (1) St else St

= if (0) if ( E )MatchedStelseMatchedSt
if (1) St else St Chapter 3 Context-free Grammar
21/10/2021 27