Module 1

INTRODUCTION
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1940 – 1956)
• It is used in the concept of stored programs
• Computers are very large in size
• Programming was a difficult task
• Some computers of this generation are:
• ENIAC (ELECTRONIC NUMERICAL INTEGRATOR AND
CALCULATOR
• Developed in 1946 by prof. Eckert and Mauchly
• Small memory
• 18000 vaccum tubes used in it
• EDVAC ( ELECTRONIC DISCRETE VARIABLE AUTOMATIC
COMPUTER)
• Developed in 1950 by Von Neumann
• Stored program
• Operations are faster , able to acess both data and
programs
• EDSAC(ELECTRONIC DELAY STORAGE AUTOMATIC
COMPUTER)
• Developed in 1949 by prof. M.V Wilkies
• Stored programs
• Implementation of program loops

• UNIVAC-1(Universal Automatic Computer)

• Developed in 1950 by UNIVAC DIVISION
REMINGTON RAND
• Stored programs
• Slow operating speed
Second Generation – Transistors (1956 – 1963)
• Developed by Bardeen,Brattain,shockely
• Transistors replaced bulky vacuum tubes, making computers
smaller, faster, and more reliable.
• In comparison to the first generation, the size of second
generation was smaller.
• In comparison to computers of the first generation, the
computing time taken by the computers of the second
generation was lesser.
Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (1964 – 1971)
• The third generation computers were developed by
using the Integrated Circuit (IC) technology.
• In comparison to the computers of the second
generation, the size of the computers of the third
generation was smaller.
• In comparison to the computers of the second
generation, the computing time taken by the computers
of the third generation was lesser.
• The third generation computer consumed less power
and also generated less heat.
• The maintenance cost of the computers in the third
generation was also low.
• The computer system of the computers of the third
generation was easier for commercial use.
Fourth Generation – Microprocessors (1972 – 2010)
• The fourth generation computers were developed by
using microprocessor technology.
• By coming to fourth generation, computer became
very small in size, it became portable.
• The machine of fourth generation started generating
very low amount of heat.
• It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
• The production cost reduced to very low in comparison
to the previous generation.
• It became available for the common people as well.
Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence (2010 Onwards)
• By the time, the computer generation was being
categorized on the basis of hardware only, but in the
fifth generation technology also included software.
• The computers of the fifth generation had high
capability and large memory capacity.
• Working with computers of this generation was fast
and multiple tasks could be performed simultaneously.
• Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth
generation include Artificial intelligence, Quantum
computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, etc.
Functional units of a computer system
Input Unit :
• The input unit consists of input devices that are
attached to the computer.
• These devices take input and convert it into binary
language that the computer understands.
• Some of the common input devices are keyboard,
mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) :
• Once the information is entered into the computer by the
input device, the processor processes it.
• The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is
the control center of the computer.
• It first fetches instructions from memory and then
interprets them so as to know what is to be done.
• If required, data is fetched from memory or input device.
• Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required
computation and then either stores the output or displays
on the output device.
• The CPU has three main components which are
responsible for different functions – Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) :
• The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical calculations
and takes logical decisions.
• Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
• Logical decisions involve comparison of two data items to see
which one is larger or smaller or equal.
Control Unit :
• The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out
of CPU and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory
registers and also input/output units.
• It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in
the program.
• It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control
signals to input/output devices until the required operation is
done properly by ALU and memory.
Memory :
• Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and
instructions and is called internal memory .
• The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each
of which can store data or instructions.
• Each memory location is of the same size and has an address.
• With the help of the address, the computer can read any memory
location easily without having to search the entire memory.
• when a program is executed, it’s data is copied to the internal
memory and is stored in the memory till the end of the execution.
• The internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main
memory. This memory is also called as RAM, i.e. Random Access
Memory.
• The time of access of data is independent of its location in
memory, therefore this memory is also called Random Access
memory (RAM).
Output Unit :
• The output unit consists of output devices that are attached
with the computer.
• It converts the binary data coming from CPU to human
understandable form.
• The common output devices are monitor, printer, plotter etc.
INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATING SYSTEM
OPERATING SYSTEM
• It is a software program .
• It is an example of system software.
• System software control system hardware and that interacts
with user and application software
• OS provide tools that enable us to interact with PC .
• The OS ensure that the result of our action are displayed on
screen ,printed and so on.
• It also acts as the primary controlling mechanism for the
computers hardware.
TYPES OF OPERATING
SYSTEM
Disk operating system(DOS)
• DOS ( disk operating system) is still in use today for a variety of
reasons.
• DOS originally came into widespread use in the 1980s, with
the appearance of the IBM PC, which was the first personal
computer .
• Two versions of DOS .The first was PC DOS, which IBM
released with its computers. The other was Microsoft’s version
of DOS, known as MS-DOS (Microsoft DOS), which was used
on millions of “ IBM-compatible” PCs, or “ clones."
• Disadvantages of DOS
• 1.It supported only one user at a time, and could run only one
program at a time.
• 2. It had no built-in support for networking, and users had to
manually install drivers any time they added a new hardware
component to their PC.
• 3. DOS was also limited in the amount of RAM and storage space it
could support.
• 4. DOS supports only 16-bit programs,
• 5. DOS used a command-line interface
• Advantages of DOS
• 1. Its size and simplicity.
• 2. It does not require much memory or storage space for the system.
• 3. It does not require a powerful computer
Windows NT Workstation
• Microsoft released Windows NT, a 32-bit operating system for PCs, in 1993.
• Windows NT (New Technology) was originally designed as the successor to
DOS.
• Windows NT to be a high-end operating system for powerful workstations
and network servers used in business.
• Windows NT Workstation is typically used on stand-alone PCs that may or
may not be part of a network.
• Windows NT Workstation supports networking and can be used as a server
in peer-to-peer networks, it generally is not used on network servers.
• it can be found in such varied places as architectural firms, audio and video
production studios, and graphics studios.
• Windows NT Workstation continues to be on desktops in large
organizations, but it is being replaced by newer versions of Windows or by
Linux.
Windows 9x
• The term Windows 9x is used when referring to any member
of the closely related operating system :Windows 95,
Windows 98, and Windows Me.
• In fact, many businesses still run Windows 9x on their desktop
PCs.
Windows 95
• In 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95.
• Windows 95 installs the necessary MS-DOS operating system
components that it needs and has additional programming code that
takes advantage of the more advanced capabilities of newer CPUs and
maintains a GUI.
• The programs designed with 32-bit processing, it can exchange
information with printers, networks, and files in 32-bit pc instead of 16-
bit pc .
• Windows 95 has improved multitasking, compared to previous versions
of Windows, and it was the first version of Windows to support the Plug
and Play standard for connecting new hardware.
• With integrated networking support and improvements to the GUI,
such as the taskbar and START button, Windows 95 remains popular
with individual users, in spite of newer versions with even more
improvements
Windows 98
• Windows 98 was introduced 1998 .
• One key change in Windows 98 is the inclusion of the Internet
Explorer Web browser with a new feature, the Active Desktop,
that lets users browse the Internet and local computer in a
similar manner .
• Active Desktop enables users to integrate Internet resources
and news information services directly on the Windows
desktop.
Microsoft Windows Me (MillenniumEdition)
• In 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (Millennium
Edition), the last member of the Windows 9x family of
consumer-grade operating systems.
• WindowsMe offers several notable enhancements over its
predecessors, such as improved multimedia capabilities, built-
in support for digital video editing, and enhanced Internet
features.
• But like Windows 95 and 98, Windows Me still contains a lot
of 16-bit code that supports old DOS and Windows 3.x
applications .
• As a result, Windows Me was not much more stable or robust
than Windows 95 or 98.
Windows 2 0 0 0 Professional
• Released in 2000, Windows 2000 combines the user friendly
interface and features of Windows 98 with the file system,
networking, power, and stability of Windows NT and some
new and improved features. This combination of features
makes Windows 2000 both powerful and easy to use.
• Microsoft developed four versions of Windows2000: Windows
2000 Professional for the desk top and three versions
especially for network servers.
• Windows NT Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional is
designed primarily for PCs in offices and small businesses.
• It includes support for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) with
up to two processors.
Windows XP
• Windows XP, released in October 2001, is the latest in the
Windows suite of PC operating system families.
• The desktop has a more three-dimensional look, with rounded
corners and more shading.
• It also offers some brighter color choices .
• Windows XP is available in several different products:
Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home, Windows XP
Media Center Edition, and Windows XP Embedded.
• Microsoft also created 64-bit Windows XP for use with AMD’s
Opteron and Athlon 64 CPUs.
Features
• Digital Media Support. Through the use of Windows Media
Player 9, users of XP can take advantage of digital broadcast
support, as well as video and audio rendering for multimedia
projects.
• Advanced Networking and Communications. Windows XP
takes advantage of universal Plug and Play support, which
enables the PC to find and use hardware connected via a
network, without forcing the user to configure the system or
install drivers. It also makes use of Internet Connection
Sharing, which allows users to connect multiple computers to
the Internet via a single connection.
Macintosh Operating System
• Macintosh operating system (or Mac OS) works only on
Macintosh computers has long been considered one of the
operating system's biggest drawbacks.
• Although it has a small market share, the Mac remains the
first choice of many publishers, multimedia developers,
graphic artists, and schools.
• The current version is called Mac OS System _____________,
•
UNIX
• It is also referred to as UNICS.
• UNICS stands for uniplexed information computing System.
• It runs on such a wide range, including supercomputers, notebook PCs, and
everything in between.
• UNIX has been popular for high powered workstations.
• Its command-line interface, cryptic instructions, it requires many commands to do
even simple task.
Linux
• Linux is an open source ,free to use operating system widely used for computer
hardware and software, game development, tablet PC,main frame etc.
• it is a cost-effective alternative to other operating systems for sharing files,
applications, printers, modems, and Internet services.
• There is a large number of Linux servers hosting Web sites and performing other
roles on the Internet.
• Linux provide graphical user interface
COMPUTER NWTWORKS
• A network is a set of technologies—including hardware,
software, and media—that can be used to connect computers
together, enabling them to communicate, exchange
information, and share resources in real time
Uses of a Network
• Networks allow many users to access shared data and programs
almost instantly.
• When data and programs are stored on a network and are
shared, individual users can substantially reduce the need for
programs on their own computers.
• Networks open up new ways to communicate, such as e-mail
and instant messaging. By allowing users to share expensive
hardware resources such as printers, networks reduce the cost
of running an organization.
1.Simultaneous Access
• There are moments in any business when several workers may need to use the same
data at the same time.
• A good example is a company’s quarterly sales report, which needs to be viewed and
updated by several managers. Without a network that allows workers to share files,
workers must keep separate copies of data stored on different disks by each worker who
accesses the data. When the data is modified on one computer, data on the other
computers becomes outdated. It becomes difficult to determine which copy of the data
is the most current.
• Companies can solve this problem by storing commonly used data at a central location,
usually on a network server (also called a server). A network server is a central
computer with a large storage device and other resources that all users can share.
• If the server stores data files for users to access, it is commonly called a file server.
• In an environment where PCs are not networked, a separate copy of each program must
be installed on every computer. This setup can be costly for two reasons. First, software
can be expensive, especially when we must buy many dozens or hundreds of copies.
Second, installing and configuring a program on many different computers can take a lot
of time and labor, and maintaining many separate installations of a program is an
ongoing expense. There are two basic solutions to this problem:
• ≫ Site Licenses. One solution to this problem is to purchase a site
license for an application. Under a site license, a business buys a
single copy (or a few copies) of an application and then pays the
developer for a license to copy the application onto a specified
number of computers. Under a site license, each user has a
complete, individual copy of the program running on his or her PC,
but the business generally pays less money than it would by
purchasing a complete copy of the software for each use
• ≫ Network Versions. Another solution is to connect users'
computers to a central network server and enable users to share a
network version of a program. In a network version, only one copy
of the application is stored on the server, with a minimum number
of supporting files copied to each user's PC. When workers need to
use a program, they simply load it from the server into the RAM of
their own desktop computers
2.Shared Peripheral Devices
• The ability to share peripheral devices (especially
expensive ones such as high volume laser printers) is one of
the best reasons for small businesses to set up a network.
Aside from the cost of buying multiple printers, maintenance
contracts and supplies increase the total cost of ownership.
When several people can share a printer on a network,
printing becomes less expensive and easier to manage.
• There are two common ways to share a printer. A printer can
connect directly to the network or it can be attached to a print
server, which is a computer that manages one or more
printers. Either way, users on desktop PCs will be able to
submit documents across a network to a printer.
3.Personal Communications
• Videoconferencing. Videoconferencing enables real-time communication over
a distance by allowing people at two or more sites to communicate with each
other by seeing a video picture of the people at the other sites. Each site has
one or more cameras, microphones, loudspeakers, and monitors, as well as a
CODEC (compressor/decompressor), which processes the audio and video.
• Audio-conferencing. Audio-conferencing provides an audio link similar to that
of a conventional telephone, except that it offers much higher-quality audio
and enables more than two sires to be linked together: Using hands-free audio
units with sensitive microphones and sophisticated echo-cancellation software,
audio-conferencing enables communication between groups of participants.
• Data-conferencing. Dara-conferencing enables participants at two or more
sites to have a shared workspace on their computer desktops. This might be a
shared “whiteboard” where they can draw, write, or import and manipulate
images collaboratively in real time. Or it might be "application sharing," where
a piece of software can be run and controlled by both users.
5.Voice over InternetProtocol (VoIP).

• Another developing area of integrated communication is Voice over Internet Protocol

(VoIP). VoIP systems bypass the need for the cost of regular telephone service by using
the company's internal network to send and receive phone calls. VoIP transmits the
sound of your voice over a computer network using the Internet Protocol (IP rather than
sending the signal over traditional phone wires. This can work on a private network for
interoffice calls or over the Internet.
• The interoffice type of connection is called pure VoIP destination computer is identified
by its IP address or by a name, which the company translates into an IP address. With
the other method, VolP-to-POTS, there exist special-purpose servers called plain old
telephone service (POTS) gateways .
4.Easier Data Backup
• In business, data is extremely valuable, so it is important that employees back up their
data. One way to assure that data is backed up is to keep it on a shared storage device
that employees can access through a network. Often the network manager makes
regular backups of the data on the shared storage device. Managers also can use special
software to back up files stored on employees' hard drives from a central location. With
this method, files do not have to be copied to the server before they can be backed up.
Common Types of
Networks
Local Area Networks (LANs)
• A local area network (LAN) is a data communication system consisting of several devices
such as computers and printers. This type of network contains computers that are
relatively near each other and are physically connected using cables, infrared links, or
wireless media.
• A LAN can consist of just two or three PCs connected together to share resources, or it can
include hundreds of computers of different kinds. Any network that exists within a single
building, or even a group of adjacent buildings, is considered a LAN. A LAN is not a system
that connects to the public environment (such as the Internet) using phone or data lines.
• It is often helpful to connect separate LANs together so they can communicate and
exchange data. In a large company, for example, two departments located on the same
floor of a building may have their own separate LANs, but if the departments need to share
data, then they can create a link between the two LANs
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• A wide area network (WAN) is two or more LANs connected together, generally across a
wide geographical area. It usually connect multiple LAN belonging to different organization.
Internet is the best example of WAN. Data rate is less in WAN compared to LAN. It uses the
communication link such as telephone line, microwave link, and satellite channels. Remote
LAN are connected through a telecommunication network or via internet through an
internet service provider .
Hybrid Networks
• Between the LAN and WAN structures, we can find hybrid networks
such as campus area networks (CANs) and metropolitan area
networks (MANs). In addition, a new form of network type is
emerging called home area networks (HANs).
Campus Area Networks (CANs)
• A campus area network (CAN) follows the same principles as a local
area network, only on a larger and more diversified scale. With a CAN,
different campus offices and organizations can be linked together.
• For example, in a typical university setting, a bursar's office might be
linked to a registrar's office. In this manner once a student has paid his
or her tuition fees to the bursar, this information is transmitted to the
registrar's system so the student can enroll for classes.
• Some university departments or organizations might be linked to the
CAN even though they already have their own separate LANs.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
• The metropolitan area network (MAN) b a large-scale network that
connects multiple corporate LANs together. MANs usually are not
owned by a single organization; their communication devices and
equipment are usually maintained by a group or single network
provider that sells its networking services to corporate customers.
MANs often take the role of a high-speed network that allows for the
sharing of regional resources. MANs also can provide a shared
connection to other networks using a WAN link.
Home Area Networks (HANs)
• A home area network (HAN) is a network contained within a user’s
home that connects a person’s digital devices, from multiple
computers and their peripheral devices, such as a printer to
telephones, VCRs, DVDs, televisions, video games,. home security
systems, “ smart” appliances, fax machines, and other digital devices
that are wired into the network
INTERNET
• Internet is a type of network. It is global communication system that link together
thousands of individual network
• The Internet connects thousands of networks and hundreds of millions of users
around the world. It is a huge, cooperative community with no central ownership.
This lack of ownership is an important feature of the Internet, because it means that
no single person or group controls the network. If you can use a computer and if the
computer is connected to the Internet, you are free not only to use the resources
posted by others, but to create resources of your own ;that is, you can publish
documents on the World Wide Web, exchange email messages, and perform many
other tasks.
The Internet’s Major Services
The World Wide Web
Electronic mail
News
File Transfer Protocol
Chat
Instant messaging
Online services
E-Mail
• The most common type of electronic communication is electronic mail.
• It is the most frequently used function of the internet
• Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a system for exchanging messages through a
• computer network.
• People most commonly use e-mail to send and receive text messages, but depending on the
software you use, you may be able to exchange audio or video messages with someone else.
• e-mail is less expensive.
• E-mail is also a faster way to communicate than postal mail because e-mail messages typically
reach their destination in seconds rather than days.
• E-mail services are very easy to access,.
• Another advantage of e-mail is the ability to attach data files and program
• files to messages.
• E-mail, however, is not a real-time communications system. The sender and the receiver not
present at the same time.
News
• Internet also support a form of public bulletin board called news
• There are ten thousands of active internet news groups,esch devoted to discussion of a
particular topic.
World Wide Web
• The World Wide Web (also known as the Web or WWW) was created in 1989 .
• It is a collection of billions of documents, all stored in different
• places, but all linked together in some manner, creating a“web” and if it cover the entire globe, it is
called a “world-wide web”.
• It is the most popular and promising method of accessing the internet
• Web documents can be linked together because they are created in a format known as hypertext.
• Hypertext systems provide an easy way to manage large collections of data, which can include text
files, pictures, sounds, movies, and more.
• To support hypertext documents, the Web uses a special protocol, called the hypertext transfer
protocol, or HTTP.
• A hypertext document is a specially encoded file that uses the hypertext markup language, or HTML.
This language allows a document's author to embed hypertext links—also called hyperlinks or just
links—in the document.
• HTTP and hypertext links are the foundations of the World Wide Web.
• Read a hypertext document—more commonly called a Web page—on
• Screen.
• A collection of related Web pages is called a Web site.
• Web site can be accessed using web browser
• A Web browser (or browser) is a software application designed to find
• hypertext documents on the Web and then open the documents on the user’s computer.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
• Internet relay chat (IR C ), or just chat, is a popular way for Internet users to communicate in real
time with other users. Real-time communication means communicating with other users in the
immediate present.
• Unlike e-mail, chat does not require a waiting period between the time you send a message and
the time the other person or group of people receives the message. IRC is often referred to as the
“CB radio” .
Instant messaging
• It is a type of chat software that restricts participation to specific users.
• There are several services such as Yahoo messenger, Windows messenger etc.
On line service
• An online service is a company that offers access generally on a subscription basis to e mail,
discussion groups, databases on various subjects and other services ranging from electronic
banking to online game.
Peer to peer services
• Peer to peer services are distributed network that do not require a central server such as web
server to manage files .
• Special software is created ,allowing an individual computer to communicate directly with another
individuals computer and even have access to files .
• Instant messaging is an example of P2P service.
MEMORY SYSTEM
Classification of Memory
Primary or Main Memory

Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that
communicates directly within the CPU, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory.
Main memory is used to kept programs or data when the processor is active to
use them.
When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first loads
instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then
the processor starts execution.
Accessing or executing of data from primary memory is faster because it has a
cache or register memory that provides faster response, and it is located closer to
the CPU.
The primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if it
is not saved when a power failure occurs.
It is costlier than secondary memory, and the main memory capacity is limited as
compared to secondary memory.
The primary memory is further divided into two parts:
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• ROM (Read Only Memory)
Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Random Access Memory (RAM) is one of the faster types of

main memory accessed directly by the CPU.
• It is the hardware in a computer device to temporarily store
data, programs or program results.
• It is used to read/write data in memory until the machine is
working.
• It is volatile, which means if a power failure occurs or the
computer is turned off, the information stored in RAM will be
lost.
• All data stored in computer memory can be read or accessed
randomly at any time.
There are two types of RAM:
• SRAM
• DRAM
DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is
used for the dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries
one-bit information. The cell is made up of two parts: a capacitor and
a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the transistor is so small,
requiring millions of them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can
hold more data than an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor
needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is
volatile. If the power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.
Characteristics of DRAM
• It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.
• It is slower than SRAM
• It holds a large amount of data
• It is the combination of capacitor and transistor
• It is less expensive as compared to SRAM
• Less power consumption
SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM
used to store static data in the memory. It means to store data in
SRAM remains active as long as the computer system has a
power supply. However, data is lost in SRAM when power failures
have occurred.
Characteristics of Static Ram
• It does not require to refresh.
• It is faster than DRAM
• It is expensive.
• High power consumption
• Longer life
• Large size
• Uses as a cache memory
Advantages of RAM
• It is a faster type of memory in a computer.
• It requires less power to operate.
• Program loads much faster
• More RAM increases the performance of a system and can
multitask.
• Perform read and write operations.
• The processor can read information faster than a hard disc,
floppy, USB, etc.
Disadvantages of RAM
• Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.
• Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.
• It is expensive than ROM
• It is unreliable as compared to ROM
• The Size of RAM is limited.
Read-Only Memory
(ROM)

ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used

to permanently store information inside a chip.
It is a read-only memory that can only read stored information,
data or programs, but we cannot write or modify anything.
A ROM contains some important instructions or program data
that are required to start or boot a computer.
It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information
cannot be lost even when the power is turned off or the system is
shut down.
There are five types of Read Only Memory:
• MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):
MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured by the
integrated circuit manufacture at the time of manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction
stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of information or
program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user can write the desired
content or program only once using the special PROM programmer or PROM burner device; after
that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.
• EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed only
once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when there is no
power supply and can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In EPROM, if we want to
erase any stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass the ultraviolet light for 40
minutes to erase the data; after that, the data is re-created in EPROM.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase stored
data using a high voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile memory
whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the stored data
can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and the data erase one byte at a
time.
• Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed in small
units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer memory, and the
contents or data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off. It is also used to transfer
data between the computer and digital devices.
Advantages of ROM
• It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be
lost even power is turned off.
• It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every
time.
• Data can be stored permanently.
• It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.
• These cannot be changed accidently
• It is cheaper than RAM.
• It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.
• It helps to start the computer and loads the OS
Disadvantages of ROM
• Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the
existing data.
• It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.
• It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using
the high charge of ultraviolet light.
Cache Memory

• Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory.

• The cache is a smaller and faster memory that stores copies of
the data from frequently used main memory locations.
• There are various different independent caches in a CPU,
which store instructions and data.
• The most important use of cache memory is that it is used to
reduce the average time to access data from the main
memory.
Characteristics of Cache Memory

• Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a

buffer between RAM and the CPU.
• Cache Memory holds frequently requested data and
instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU
when needed.
• Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory
but more economical than CPU registers.
• Cache Memory is used to speed up and synchronize with a high-
speed CPU.
HDD,SSD,FLASH DRIVES
• 1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):
• Technology: Uses magnetic storage to read/write data.
• Speed: Slower due to mechanical parts (usually 5400 RPM or 7200
RPM).
• Capacity: Offers larger storage capacities at lower prices (e.g., 1TB,
2TB, 4TB, etc.).
• Durability: Mechanical parts make them more susceptible to
damage from drops or shocks.
• Lifespan: Shorter lifespan compared to SSD due to wear of
mechanical parts.
• Noise: Can be noisy because of moving parts.
• Power consumption: Higher power consumption than SSDs.
• Best for: Budget-friendly storage for large amounts of data, ideal
for bulk storage of files, archives, or backups.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
• a. Technology and Components
• Platters: Circular disks coated with magnetic material where data is stored.
• Spindle: Rotates the platters at a constant speed (commonly 5400 RPM or
7200 RPM).
• Read/Write Heads: Move across platters to read or write data.
• Actuator Arm: Positions the read/write heads precisely over the platters.
• b. Types of HDDs
• Desktop HDDs: Typically 3.5-inch form factor, used in desktop computers
and external storage.
• Laptop HDDs: Smaller 2.5-inch form factor, optimized for portable devices
with lower power consumption.
• Enterprise HDDs: Designed for servers and data centers, offering higher
durability and performance.
• Hybrid Drives (SSHD): Combine HDDs with a small amount of SSD cache to
improve performance for frequently accessed data.
• c. Performance Metrics
• Rotational Speed (RPM): Higher RPMs (e.g., 7200 RPM vs. 5400 RPM)
result in faster data access and transfer rates.
• Cache Size: Larger caches (e.g., 64MB vs. 16MB) can improve performance
by storing frequently accessed data.
• Data Density: Higher areal density allows more data to be stored on each
platter, increasing capacity without increasing physical size.
• d. Installation Considerations
• Form Factor: Ensure the drive size (2.5-inch vs. 3.5-inch) matches your
device.
• Interface: Common interfaces include SATA (most prevalent) and SAS (for
enterprise use).
• Mounting: Check available bays and mounting options in your PC or
external enclosure.
• Power Requirements: Ensure your power supply can accommodate
additional drives.
Advantages Disadvantages
High storage capacity at lower Slower read/write speeds
cost compared to SSDs
Long lifespan for static data Susceptible to mechanical failure
storage and damage from shocks
Widely compatible with various
Generates more heat and noise
systems
Cost-effective for bulk storage Higher power consumption
• 2. Solid State Drive (SSD):
• Technology: Uses NAND flash memory to store data.
• Speed: Much faster read/write speeds compared to HDD
(especially with NVMe SSDs).
• Capacity: Offers lower storage capacity at a higher price (e.g.,
250GB, 500GB, 1TB).
• Durability: More durable since it has no moving parts, resistant to
physical shocks and drops.
• Lifespan: Longer lifespan, although NAND cells have a limited
number of write cycles.
• Noise: Completely silent as there are no moving parts.
• Power consumption: Lower power consumption than HDDs.
• Best for: Faster performance, boot times, and application loading.
Ideal for operating systems, games, and frequently accessed files.
Solid State Drive (SSD)
• a. Technology and Components
• NAND Flash Memory: Stores data in memory cells; non-volatile and retains data
without power.
• Controller: Manages data storage, retrieval, error correction, and wear leveling.
• DRAM Cache: Some SSDs include DRAM to cache data for faster access (though
DRAM-less SSDs are also available).
• b. Types of SSDs
• SATA SSDs: Use the SATA III interface, compatible with most systems. Generally
2.5-inch or mSATA form factors.
• NVMe SSDs: Utilize the PCIe interface, offering significantly higher speeds.
Common form factors include M.2 and PCIe add-in cards.
• M.2 SSDs: Compact, rectangular form factor that can support SATA or NVMe
protocols. Popular for modern laptops and desktops.
• U.2 SSDs: Enterprise-grade SSDs using the U.2 connector, supporting NVMe over
PCIe.
• External SSDs: Portable SSDs connected via USB, Thunderbolt, or other interfaces
for external storage needs.
• c. Performance Metrics
• Sequential Read/Write Speeds: Important for large file transfers; NVMe SSDs
can achieve up to 7000 MB/s, while SATA SSDs are limited to around 550 MB/s.
• Random Read/Write IOPS (Input/Output Operations Per Second): Crucial for
multitasking and application responsiveness; SSDs can handle hundreds of
thousands of IOPS.
• Latency: SSDs have much lower latency compared to HDDs, resulting in faster
data access times.
• d. Installation Considerations
• Interface Compatibility: Ensure your motherboard supports the SSD type (SATA,
NVMe via M.2, PCIe).
• Form Factor: Verify physical space and mounting options (e.g., M.2 slots, 2.5-
inch bays).
• Firmware Updates: Keep SSD firmware updated for optimal performance and
reliability.
• Cloning Software: Use reliable cloning tools to migrate data from an existing
drive to the new SSD.
Advantages Disadvantages
Significantly faster read/write Higher cost per GB compared to
speeds HDDs
More durable with no moving Limited write cycles (though
parts generally sufficient for most users)
Potential compatibility issues with
Lower power consumption
older systems
Silent operation and lower heat Higher initial investment for large
generation capacities
Instant boot times and quick Data recovery can be more
application loading complex if failure occurs
• 3. Flash Drives (USB Drives):
• Technology: Similar to SSDs, uses NAND flash memory, but
typically slower.
• Speed: Slower than SSDs, faster than HDD in some cases.
• Capacity: Typically lower capacity compared to HDD and SSD
(e.g., 16GB, 32GB, 128GB).
• Durability: Durable and portable, no moving parts, resistant to
shocks.
• Lifespan: Limited by write cycles, similar to SSDs.
• Noise: Silent.
• Power consumption: Minimal, very low power consumption.
• Best for: Portable data storage and transfers. Ideal for
transferring files between devices, short-term storage.
Flash Drives (USB Drives)
• a. Technology and Components
• NAND Flash Memory: Similar to SSDs, used for non-volatile data storage.
• Controller: Manages data storage, error correction, and wear leveling.
• Interface: Typically USB 3.0, USB 3.1, USB-C, or Thunderbolt for
connectivity.
• b. Types of Flash Drives
• Standard USB Flash Drives: Portable, plug-and-play storage devices.
• Thumb Drives: Compact and often integrated into keychains for easy
transport.
• High-Capacity Flash Drives: Offer larger storage (up to 2TB) for extensive
data transfer needs.
• Encrypted Flash Drives: Provide hardware-based encryption for secure
data storage.
• Bootable USB Drives: Configured to boot operating systems or run live
environments for installation or recovery.
• c. Performance Metrics
• Transfer Speeds: Vary based on USB version and controller; USB 3.2
and Thunderbolt drives offer higher speeds (up to 2000 MB/s).
• Read/Write Speeds: Important for tasks like transferring large files;
higher speeds reduce transfer times.
• Durability: Solid-state nature makes them resistant to physical
damage, but quality varies by manufacturer.
• d. Installation and Usage Considerations
• Compatibility: Ensure the drive’s interface is supported by your device
(e.g., USB-A vs. USB-C ports).
• Portability: Choose based on size and durability needs for on-the-go
use.
• Security Features: Opt for encrypted drives if data security is a priority.
• Storage Management: Regularly back up important data stored on
flash drives to prevent loss.
Advantages Disadvantages
Generally lower storage capacities
Highly portable and easy to use
compared to HDDs and SSDs
Quick data transfer with USB 3.x
Can be easily lost due to small size
and Thunderbolt
Slower write speeds compared to
Durable with no moving parts
SSDs, especially cheaper models
Plug-and-play functionality across Limited lifespan based on write
devices cycles
Available in various sizes and Higher cost per GB compared to
formats HDDs
• Key Differences:
• Speed: SSDs > Flash Drives > HDDs.
• Durability: SSDs/Flash Drives (no moving parts) > HDDs.
• Capacity & Price: HDDs (higher capacity, lower cost) > SSDs >
Flash Drives.
• Power Consumption: Flash Drives < SSDs < HDDs.
Computer Hardware
Fundamentals
• 1. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
• Importance of the Power Supply Unit
• Core Function: Converts electrical power from an outlet into
usable power for the computer's internal components.
• Stability and Reliability: Ensures consistent voltage and
current to prevent hardware damage.
• System Performance: Adequate power ensures all
components operate efficiently, especially under load.
• Energy Efficiency: Efficient PSUs reduce electricity
consumption and heat generation.
Components of a Power
Supply Unit
• Input Section:
• AC Input: Receives alternating current from the power outlet.
• Filter: Removes electrical noise and spikes from the input power.
• Rectifier and Filter:
• Rectifier: Converts AC to direct current (DC).
• Filter Capacitors: Smooth out the DC signal to reduce fluctuations.
• Switching Section:
• Switching Transistor: Rapidly switches the DC on and off to regulate voltage.
• Transformer: Steps down or steps up voltage as needed.
• Output Section:
• Voltage Regulation: Maintains stable DC output (e.g., +12V, +5V, +3.3V).
• Protection Circuits:
• Over Voltage Protection (OVP)
• Under Voltage Protection (UVP)
• Over Current Protection (OCP)
• Short Circuit Protection (SCP)
• Connectors and Cables:
• ATX Connector: Main power connector to the motherboard.
• Peripheral Connectors: For drives and other peripherals (e.g., SATA,
Molex).
• Key Considerations When Choosing a PSU
• Wattage: Sufficient to power all components, with some headroom.
• Efficiency Rating: 80 Plus certifications (Bronze, Silver, Gold,
Platinum, Titanium) indicate efficiency.
• Modularity:
• Non-Modular: All cables fixed.
• Semi-Modular: Some fixed, some detachable.
• Fully Modular: All cables detachable for better cable management.
• Form Factor: Compatibility with the computer case (e.g., ATX, SFX).
• 2. Cooling System
• Importance of the Cooling System
• Thermal Management: Prevents overheating of components,
ensuring optimal performance and longevity.
• Performance Stability: Maintains consistent operation,
avoiding thermal throttling.
• Component Protection: Reduces risk of hardware failure due
to excessive heat.
• Noise Control: Efficient cooling can minimize fan noise.
Components of a Cooling
System
• Air Cooling:
• CPU Heatsink and Fan: Dissipates heat from the CPU.
• Case Fans: Facilitate airflow through the computer case.
• GPU Heatsink and Fan: Cools the graphics card.
• Liquid Cooling:
• Radiator: Transfers heat from the coolant to the air.
• Water Block: Attached to the component (e.g., CPU, GPU) to absorb heat.
• Pump: Circulates the coolant through the system.
• Reservoir: Holds excess coolant and aids in filling the system.
• Thermal Paste/Pads:
• Thermal Interface Material (TIM): Improves heat transfer between
components (e.g., CPU) and heatsinks.
• Heat Pipes:
• Heat Pipe Technology: Transfers heat efficiently from the source to the
heatsink.
• Types of Cooling Solutions
• Stock Cooling: Basic coolers provided by manufacturers, suitable for standard
use.
• Aftermarket Air Coolers: Enhanced cooling performance with larger heatsinks
and better fans.
• All-In-One (AIO) Liquid Coolers: Pre-assembled liquid cooling systems for easier
installation.
• Custom Liquid Cooling: Tailored liquid cooling setups for maximum
performance and aesthetics.
• Key Considerations for Effective Cooling
• Airflow Design: Proper arrangement of intake and exhaust fans to ensure
efficient air movement.
• Component Compatibility: Ensuring coolers fit within the case and are
compatible with components.
• Noise Levels: Balancing cooling performance with acceptable noise output.
• Maintenance: Regular cleaning of dust filters and checking coolant levels in
liquid systems.
• 3. Understanding Ports and Expansion Slots
• Ports
• Ports are interfaces on the computer that allow peripheral
devices to connect and communicate with the system.
Common ports include USB and HDMI.
• USB (Universal Serial Bus)
• Versions:
• USB 1.1: Low-speed (1.5 Mbps) and full-speed (12 Mbps).
• USB 2.0: High-speed (480 Mbps).
• USB 3.0/3.1/3.2: SuperSpeed (5 Gbps, 10 Gbps, 20 Gbps
respectively).
• USB4: Up to 40 Gbps, supports Thunderbolt 3.
• Types of Connectors:
• Type-A: Standard rectangular connector.
• Type-B: Square-shaped, used for devices like printers.
• Type-C: Reversible, compact, supports higher speeds and power delivery.
• Uses:
• Data transfer, charging devices, connecting peripherals (e.g., keyboards, mice, external drives).
• HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)
• Versions:
• HDMI 1.4: Supports up to 4K at 30Hz.
• HDMI 2.0: Supports up to 4K at 60Hz.
• HDMI 2.1: Supports up to 10K, higher refresh rates, and advanced features like Variable
Refresh Rate (VRR).
• Connector Types:
• Type A: Standard 19-pin connector.
• Type C (Mini HDMI): Smaller, used in some laptops and cameras.
• Type D (Micro HDMI): Even smaller, used in mobile devices.
• Uses:
• Transmitting high-definition video and audio from sources (e.g., PC, console) to displays (e.g.,
monitors, TVs).
• Expansion Slots
• Expansion slots on the motherboard allow for the addition of
expansion cards to enhance or add functionality to the
computer. Common types include PCI and PCIe.
• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
• Overview:
• An older standard for expansion slots, now largely obsolete.
• Parallel communication interface.
• Characteristics:
• Lower data transfer rates compared to newer standards.
• Typically used for older expansion cards like sound cards, network
cards.
• Types:
• PCI 2.2: Common version, supports 32-bit and 64-bit data paths.
• PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express)
• Overview:
• The modern standard for expansion slots, replacing PCI.
• Serial communication interface with higher data transfer rates.
• Versions and Lanes:
• PCIe 1.x: 2.5 Gbps per lane.
• PCIe 2.x: 5 Gbps per lane.
• PCIe 3.x: 8 Gbps per lane.
• PCIe 4.x: 16 Gbps per lane.
• PCIe 5.x: 32 Gbps per lane.
• Lanes (x1, x4, x8, x16): Indicates the number of data lanes; more lanes provide
higher bandwidth.
• Connector Types:
• Standard Slots: x1, x4, x8, x16 slots for various expansion cards.
• Uses:
• Graphics cards, NVMe SSDs, network cards, sound cards, and other high-speed
peripherals.
• Key Differences Between PCI and PCIe
• Performance: PCIe offers significantly higher bandwidth and scalability.
• Architecture: PCI uses parallel communication; PCIe uses serial communication
with point-to-point links.
• Compatibility: PCI is mostly obsolete; PCIe is backward and forward compatible
across different versions and lane configurations.
• Physical Design: PCIe slots vary in size based on the number of lanes, whereas
PCI slots have a standard size.
• Other Common Ports and Expansion Interfaces
• Thunderbolt: High-speed interface (often via USB-C connectors) supporting data,
video, and power.
• DisplayPort: Alternative to HDMI for video and audio transmission, commonly
used in professional displays.
• Ethernet (RJ-45): Wired networking connection.
• Audio Jacks: 3.5mm connectors for audio input/output.
• M.2 Slots: Expansion slots on motherboards for high-speed storage and other
peripherals.