Honors Chemistry

1st Semester Review

Scientific Method - Observe
Observations:
• 1. Qualitative
– Do you like this powerpoint?
• Usually uses the five senses.

• 2. Quantitative
– How many words are on this
powerpoint?
• Usually can be answered precisely.
Finding Volume of
Irregularly shaped items

 This is called
Water
Displacement
 Start by locating the meniscus

 Always make your reading at the bottom of

the meniscus!!
 Finding Density

 Density is a ratio between mass and

volume.
 You need to divide to find the ratio.
 Density = mass divided by volume

OR
 D = M/V
 Rules for significant figures:

(1) All nonzero digits are significant (1-9):

1.234 g has 4 significant figures
1.2 g has 2 significant figures
(2) Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant:
1002 kg has 4 significant figures
3.07 mL has 3 significant figures
(3) Leading zeros (left) of the first nonzero digits are
NOT significant; They indicate the position of the
decimal point:
0.001°C has only 1 significant figure
0.012 g has 2 significant figures
(4) Trailing zeroes (after a decimal point) are significant:
0.0230 mL has 3 significant figures,
0.20 g has 2 significant figures.

(5) When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right
of a decimal point, the zeroes are not necessarily
significant:
190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures
50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 sig figures

• The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the

use of standard exponential, or "scientific," notation.
• Rules for mathematical operations
• In calculations, the general rule is that the accuracy of a calculated
result is limited by the least accurate measurement involved

1) In addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off so that it has

the same number of digits as the measurement having the fewest
decimal places (counting from left to right). For example,

101 (3 sig figures) + 23.643 (5 sig figures) = 124.643,

which should be rounded to 125 (3 sig figures).

302.1 + 54.345 = 356.445,

which should be rounded to 356.4 (least shared decimal place)
2) In multiplication and division, the result should be
rounded off so as to have the same number of
significant figures as in the component with the least
number of significant figures. For example,

3.0 (2 sig figures ) × 12.60 (4 sig figures) = 37.8000

which should be rounded to 38 (2 sig figures).

Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical Changes: Do not alter the

identity of a substance
 Crushing, tearing, changes of state

(solid to liquid to gas)

Chemical Changes: Alter the identity

or chemistry of a substance
 Burning, cooking, rusting
What is Matter?
 Matter is anything that has mass
and volume
States of Matter
 Liquid
 has undefined shape but defined
volume
 Pure Substances – Element
 Matter that can not be broken down into
simpler substances under normal lab
conditions
 Contains only one kind of atom
Atom Molecule

 Elements (symbols) Na, Au, C

 Where can you find a list of all the
Mixtures:
Homogeneous
 Mixture with no visibly different
parts.
 Sea water - H2O + NaCl
 Air - N2 + O2 + CO2
 Physical and Chemical Changes
 Is this a physical
or a chemical
change?
 Explain your
reasoning.

New substances form

when there is a
chemical change.
ATOMIC THEORIES
 J.J. Thomson
 1897 Experiment
 - discovered electrons

 Atom is made up of
charged matter
ATOMIC THEORIES
 Ernest Rutherford:
 1910 – Planetary Model
 Atom is mostly empty space
 Found the nucleus (a small dense region of positively
charged particles).

 If the nucleus were the size of a marble,

 Then the atom would be the size of Cardinal’s
stadium
RUTHERFORD – GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT
DISCOVERED THE NUCLEUS
ATOMIC THEORIES
 John Dalton – 1808

Atomic Theory:
1. Elements are made up of tiny particles called
atoms.
2. Atoms of one element are identical.
3. Atoms of other elements are different from
each other.
4. Atoms can combine to form compounds.
5 Atoms are not created, nor destroyed, but can
change they way they are grouped together.
Periodic Table Trends
 The most important difference
between Mendeleev's table and
today’s table:
 the modern table is organized by
increasing atomic number, not
increasing atomic weight.

 Why was the table changed?

 Discovery of isotopes and ions.
 PERIODIC TABLE
Atomic Number = Number of Protons

 Hydrogen – 1 proton = #1
 Helium – 2 protons = #2
 Gold – 79 protons = #79

 Rules: All elements on the period table are

neutral.
 Therefore, #of protons = #of electrons
 What about neutrons – we’re coming to that
later
Periodic Table Trends
 Groups – Columns

 Elements within a group share

several common properties.

 Groups have the same outer electron

arrangement.

 Like families, the share the same

characteristics
Periodic Table Trends
 Group 18: Noble Gases
 Helium and neon are examples of noble
gases.
 These elements are used to make
lighted signs, refrigerants, and lasers.
 The noble gases are not reactive.

 He Never Argued with Superman

 Xenon’s a Nurse.
 What does this mean and
why do we care?
 Properties
of atoms correlate with the
number and energy of electrons

 Atoms like to have full outer shells

 Valence electrons have the most energy

(this is where all the action occurs)

 This
will help us predict what reactions
may occur when we start mixing
elements together
Main Group Elements & Their Ions

Note
periodicity
of charges
PERIODIC TABLE
 Atomic # = # of Protons
 Symbol

Atomic
Mass
PERIODIC TABLE
Isotopes: elements with a different
number of neutrons.

 Elements have to have the same

number of protons to be the same
element.
ATOMIC THEORIES
 Mass Number

 Protons
 Neutrons

 NOT Electrons
(too small to want
to count)
PERIODIC TABLE
 Atomic mass

Review:
 What does one proton weigh?
 1 atomic mass unit (amu)
 What does one neutron weigh?
 1 amu
 What does one electron weigh?
 So small we will consider it to be zero
PERIODIC TABLE
 Atomic # = # of Protons
 Symbol

What is
this?
PERIODIC TABLE
 Why the weird number?

 We know that Lithium has 3 protons

 3 amu
 We assume it has 3 neutrons
 3 amu
 We assume the electrons are zero mass.
 So we total 6 amu. Where is the 0.941
coming from? Isotopes
 6.941 is the average of all the naturally
occurring isotopes of lithium.
Main Group Elements & Their Ions

Note
periodicity
of charges
PERIODIC TABLE
Isotopes: elements with a different
number of neutrons.

 How do we write isotopes? C

14
 Alkali
Alkaline Earth

Transition Metals

Chalcogens
Halogens
Noble Gases
Periodic Table Trends
 Nonmetals
 upper right side of the periodic
table (Yellow)
 The halogens, the noble
gases, and the rest.
 Poor conductors of heat and
electricity.
 Solid nonmetals are brittle and
lack metallic luster.
 White Board Practice
Lewis Symbols or Lewis Dot Diagrams
• We place the electrons on four sides of a
square around the element symbol.

Practice:
O Na Ca Ba

Ne H I Cs

• Check with your partner

Phase Diagram - Overview
Phase Change diagram
Exothermic
What definition are we missing?
Endothermic

sublimation
deposition
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
• Crisscros • Write the element symbols for the
s Method cation and anion, with the cation on
the left and the anion on the right.
• Write each ion’s charge as a
superscript.
• Crisscross the two charges moving
them downward diagonally from
one superscript to the other
• Example
subscript.
 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Name  Formula 1. Identify the ions involved
2. List the cation first and
then the anion
3. Determine that charge of
each ion involved
Example: 4. Balance the charges so
Calcium Chloride the compound is neutral.
Ca +2 and Cl -1
CaCl2
 Naming Binary Covalent
Compounds
Prefixes 1= mono (can be omitted – assumed)
2= di
3 = tri
4 = tetra
5 = penta
6 = hexa
7 = hepta
8 = octa
9 = nona
10 = deca
 Naming Binary Covalent
Compounds
Practice 1. Write the chemical formula of the
Name  Formula first element listed.
2. Write the prefix number as a
subscript.
3. Write the chemical formula of the
second element listed.
4. Write the prefix number as a
subscript.

What is the formula for a. Pentachlorine dioxide

the following b. Carbon monoxide
compounds? c. Tribromine hexasulfide
 Naming Binary Covalent
Compounds
Practice 1. Write the number of the first
element as a prefix, add the name
FormulaName
of chemical.
2. Write the number of the second
element as a prefix, add the name
of chemical and end in –ide.

What is the name of the a. P4C8

following
b. F9I6
compounds?
c. SN3
 Why do atoms form bonds?
Octet Rule Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share
electrons in order to acquire a
full set of valence electrons.

Lewis Dot • Used to illustrate valence

Diagrams electrons
• Used to illustrate how electrons
rearrange during chemical
reactions (when bonds are
formed or broken)
 Review: Ions
• What are Ions?
• Ions are formed by adding or subtracting electrons
from a neutral atom or molecule.

Cation: positive charge Anion: negative charge

(remove electrons) Na+ (add electrons) Cl-
 Naming Binary Covalent
Compounds
Practice 1. Write the number of the first
element as a prefix, add the name
FormulaName
of chemical.
2. Write the number of the second
element as a prefix, add the name
of chemical and end in –ide.

What is the name of the a. P4C8

following
b. F9I6
compounds?
c. SN3
BALANCING EQUATIONS
 Conservation of mass law
 Only change the coefficients
 Same for reactants and products

 H2 + O2  H2O

 2H2 + O2  2H2O
MOLAR MASS
 Take the atomis mass (weight) of
each element in the molecule or
compound
 Add them together
 Unit is g/mol

 CO2
 12.01 + 16.00 + 16.00= 44.01 g/mol
MOLS AND ATOMS,
MOLECULES, PARTICLES
 First step of Stoich
 Use 6.02 x 1023 if the questions
gives or asks for atoms, particles,
molecules, or compounds
 Don’t get molecules and mols
mixed up

 How many atoms are in 2.3 mols of carbon

 2.3 mols C___6.02 x 1023 C

1 mol C
GRAMS AND MOLS
 If the question asks for or gives
grams in the question…use molar
mass
 Remember the 4 steps
 Write what is given
 Use the right conversion factor
 Cancel out the same words- never numbers
 Multiple, divide, or do both

How many mols are in 21.3 grams of HCl

21.3 grams HCl_____1 mol HCl

36.46 g HCl
STOICHIOMETRY
 Remember the 4 steps
 You must start with a balanced
equation
 3 types of stoich problems
 Mol to mol
 Gram to mol or mol to gram
 Gram to gram
 The problem will guide you
PERCENT COMP
 What percent of a molecule is made
up of a single element
 Take the mass of the element and
divide by the molar mass of the
entire molecule, then multiple by
100

 What percent of C is in CH4

 12.01 g
16.05 g
EMP AND MOLECULAR
FORMULAS
 Know the difference
 How to find the molecular formula
from the emp formula
 Know how to solve if only given
percent comp
LIMITING REACTANT
 Know how to find the limiting
reactant
 Take the trick of changing grams to
mols and the lowest number is the
limiting reactant
MOLARITY
 Understand the equation
 M= mol/L

 What is the molarity of a solution with 12.0

mol of HCl in 2.0 L
 6M
DILUTION
 M1V1 = M2V2
 You must have three pieces of
information to find the 4th
TYPES OF REACTIONS AND
PREDICT THE PRODUCT
 Synthesis
 Single
 Double
 Combustion
 Decomp

 Predict the product

 Metals don’t go together