UNIT-4

Radiation Sensors
Radiation Sensors:
Introduction, Basic Characteristics, Types of Photo resistors
/Photodetectors, Xray and Nuclear Radiation Sensors, Fibre
Optic Sensors.
Introduction:
• Radiation sensors are devices used to detect and measure
different types of radiation, such as alpha, beta, gamma, and x-
rays.
• They are used in a variety of applications, including nuclear
power plants, medical imaging, and radiation therapy.
• Some common types of radiation sensors include Geiger
counters, scintillation detectors, and gas-filled detectors.
• Radiation sensors work by detecting ionizing radiation,
which is a type of energy that can knock electrons out of
atoms, creating ions.
• The basic working principle of a radiation sensor is that
ionizing radiation interacts with a detector material, causing a
change in electrical properties, such as current or voltage.
• This change is then processed and converted into a
measurement of the radiation's strength and type.
• Different types of radiation sensors use different detector
materials, such as gas, scintillators, or semiconductors, and
employ different methods to measure the electrical properties
of the detector material, such as ionization or excitation.
Basic Characteristics:
• Sensitivity: This is the minimum amount of radiation that a sensor can detect. The lower the
sensitivity, the more sensitive the sensor is.
• Linearity: This is the degree to which the sensor's output is proportional to the radiation's
strength. A sensor with high linearity will produce accurate measurements over a wide range of
radiation levels.
• Energy response: This is the range of radiation energies that a sensor can detect. Some sensors
are only able to detect specific types of radiation, such as gamma or beta, while others have a
broader energy response.
• Spectral response: This is the range of radiation wavelengths that a sensor can detect. Some
sensors are sensitive to a broad range of wavelengths, while others are only sensitive to specific
wavelengths.
• Dynamic range: This is the range of radiation levels that a sensor can measure. A sensor with a
high dynamic range can measure both low and high levels of radiation.
• Temperature sensitivity: This is the degree to which a sensor's
performance is affected by changes in temperature. Some sensors are
more temperature-sensitive than others.
• Time response: This is the amount of time it takes for a sensor to
respond to a change in radiation levels. Some sensors have a faster time
response than others.
• Size and weight: This is the physical size and weight of a sensor. Some
sensors are small and lightweight, making them suitable for portable
applications, while others are larger and heavier, making them more
suitable for fixed installations.
Photoresistor:
• A photoresistor, also known as a light-dependent resistor (LDR), is a
type of resistor whose resistance changes in response to the amount of
light that falls on it.
• Photoresistors are widely used in applications such as light-sensitive
alarms and automatic lighting control systems.
• They are typically made of semiconductor materials, such as cadmium
sulfide (CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe).
Working:
• Photoresistors are made of a semiconductor material, such as cadmium sulfide or cadmium selenide, that
changes its electrical resistance in response to light.
• When light is shone on the semiconductor material, it excites electrons in the material, making them more
mobile.
• As the number of mobile electrons increases, the resistance of the material decreases.
• The resistance of a photoresistor changes in proportion to the intensity of the light falling on it.
• Photoresistors can be used in a circuit to control the amount of current flowing through it, depending on
the light level.
• They can be used in applications such as light-sensitive alarms, automatic lighting control systems, and
exposure meters in photography.
• Photoresistors are typically small, inexpensive, and easy to use, making them a popular choice for many
applications requiring light sensing.
Types of Photoresistors:
• Cadmium sulfide (CdS) photoresistor: This is one of the most common types of photoresistor. It is made
of a thin film of cadmium sulfide that changes its resistance in response to light. CdS photoresistors have a
wide spectral response and are relatively inexpensive.
• Cadmium selenide (CdSe) photoresistor: This type of photoresistor is similar to CdS photoresistor but it is
made of cadmium selenide.
• Lead sulfide (PbS) photoresistor: This type of photoresistor is made of a thin film of lead sulfide. It has a
lower sensitivity than CdS or CdSe photoresistor but it has a higher spectral response.
• Silicon photoresistor: This type of photoresistor is made of silicon and it is sensitive to light in the infrared
range. It has a higher sensitivity than CdS or CdSe photoresistor but it has a lower spectral response.
• Organic Photoresistor: These are photoresistor made from organic materials and have a wide range of
spectral response, low cost, and flexibility to suit different application requirements.
Photodetector:
• A photodetector is a device that converts light energy into an electrical
current or voltage.
• Photodetectors are used in a wide range of applications, including
optical communication systems, medical imaging, and scientific
research.
Working:
• Photodiodes are semiconductor devices that convert light
energy into an electrical current.
• They consist of a p-n junction, which is a boundary between
a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor.
• When light is shone on the photodiode, it creates electron-
hole pairs in the p-n junction.
• These electron-hole pairs generate a current that flows
through an external circuit.
Types Of Photodetectors:
• Photoconductive detectors: These detectors are made of a semiconductor
material, such as silicon or germanium, that changes its electrical conductivity
when exposed to light.
• Photovoltaic detectors: These detectors use the photovoltaic effect to convert
light energy into electrical energy. They are commonly made of materials such as
silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide.
• Photodiode: A p-n junction diode that generates a current when exposed to light,
this is the most common type of photodetector. Photomultiplier: A vacuum tube
device that amplifies the current generated by a single photon of light, used
mainly in low light-level applications.
• Avalanche Photodiode: A photodiode that uses the avalanche effect to provide a
high gain, used mainly in fiber optics communication and other high-speed
applications.
X-Ray Sensors:
• An X-ray sensor is a device that detects X-rays and converts
them into an electrical signal.
• They are used in a wide range of applications such as medical
imaging, security scanners, and industrial inspection.
• There are several types of X-ray sensors, including flat panel
detectors, computed radiography systems, and film-based
systems.
Working:

• X-ray sensors work by detecting X-ray radiation and converting it into

an electrical signal.
• They consist of a scintillator material, which absorbs X-rays and emits
light in response.
• The emitted light is then detected by a photodetector, such as a
photodiode, which converts it into an electrical signal.
• The electrical signal is then processed and analyzed to produce an
image of the object being scanned.
• The X-ray sensors are used in various applications such as medical
imaging, industrial inspection, and security imaging.
Nuclear Radiation Sensors:

• Nuclear radiation sensors detect and measure ionizing radiation, which

includes alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and x-rays.
• They typically consist of a detector material, such as a scintillator, gas,
or solid-state, that absorbs the ionizing radiation and produces an
electrical signal.
• They typically consist of a detector material, such as scintillator, gas,
or solid-state, that absorbs the ionizing radiation and produces an
electrical signal.
• The electrical signal is then processed and analyzed to produce a
measurement of the radiation level.
• They can be classified into two types: gas-based detectors and solid-
state detectors, each with their advantages and disadvantages.
• They are commonly used in nuclear power plants, medical imaging,
and radiation protection.
• Nuclear radiation sensors are important for monitoring and controlling
exposure to ionizing radiation to ensure safety for both people and the
environment.
Fiber Optic Sensors:
• Fiber optic sensors are devices that use optical fibers as the sensing element to
detect various physical, chemical, and biological parameters.
• They are based on the principle that light traveling through an optical fiber can be
modulated by changes in the surrounding environment.
• The sensor converts the physical parameter of interest (such as temperature,
pressure, or strain) into a change in the light intensity, phase, or wavelength,
which is then detected by a photodetector and converted into an electrical signal.
• Fiber optic sensors are highly sensitive, immune to electromagnetic interference,
and can be used in harsh environments. They are used in a wide range of
applications including telecommunications, medicine, industrial process control,
and structural monitoring.
Working:
• The sensor consists of an optical fiber that is made of a core of a transparent material (such as glass or plastic) surrounded by a

cladding material with a lower refractive index.

• Light is launched into the optical fiber through one end, and it travels through the core due to the total internal reflection at the

core-cladding interface.

• When the physical parameter of interest (such as temperature, pressure, or strain) changes, it causes a change in the refractive

index of the core or the cladding.

• This, in turn, causes a change in the intensity, phase, or wavelength of the light traveling through the fiber.

• The sensor detects this change by measuring the light at the other end of the fiber using a photodetector, which converts the

light into an electrical signal.

• This electrical signal can be further analyzed to extract the desired measurement of the physical parameter.