Propositional Logic:

 A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false.

 Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1(or) True and False.
 In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use any symbol for a
representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
 Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
 Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
 These connectives are also called logical operators.
 The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
 Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
 A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid sentence.
 A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
 For Example:

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Syntax of propositional logic:
 The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge representation. There
are two types of Propositions:
1. Atomic Propositions
2. Compound propositions
 Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single proposition
symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
 For Example:
a. 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b. "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
 Compound Proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining one or more
propositions.
 For Example:
a. "It is raining today, and street is wet."
b. "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

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Logical Connectives:
 Consider all the possible combinations of the propositions which are joined together by Logical
Connectives to form the given compound proposition. This compilation of all possible scenarios in a
tabular format is called a “Truth Table”.
 Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive literal or negative
literal.

 Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a conjunction. For Example:
Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.

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Logical Connectives(contd.,):

 Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction, where P and Q are
the propositions. For Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer", Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is
Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.

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Logical Connectives:
 Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also known as if-then
rules. It can be represented as, For Example: If it is raining, then the street is wet. Let P= It is raining, and
Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q

 Biconditional (or) Bi-implication: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, For Example:

If I am breathing, then I am alive. Let P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

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Logical Connectives:
 Build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is made-up of three
proposition symbols.

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Propositional logic: Syntax
• Propositional logic is the simplest logic – illustrates basic ideas

• The proposition symbols P1, P2 etc are (atomic) sentences

• If S is a sentence, (S) is a sentence (negation)

• If S1 and S2 are sentences, (S1  S2) is a sentence (conjunction)

• If S1 and S2 are sentences, (S1  S2) is a sentence (disjunction)

• If S1 and S2 are sentences, (S1  S2) is a sentence (implication)

• If S1 and S2 are sentences, (S1  S2) is a sentence (biconditional)

There are five connectives in
common use:
Precedence of Connectives:
 Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or logical operators.
This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem. Following is the list of the
precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

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Logical Equivalence:
 Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be logically
equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.
 Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In below truth
table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is Equivalent to B

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Properties of Operators:

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Limitations of Propositional logic:
 We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic. For example:
• All the boys are intelligent.
• Some apples are sweet.
 Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
 In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or logical relationships.

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Rules of Inference in Propositional logic:
 Intelligent computers which can create new logic from old logic or by evidence, so generating the
conclusions from evidence and facts is termed as Inference.
 Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are applied to derive
proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the conclusion that leads to the desired
goal.
 In inference rules, the implication among all the connectives plays an important role. Following are some
terminologies related to inference rules:
• Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q. It is a Boolean
expression.
• Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition goes to the left-
hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
• Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be represented as ¬
Q → ¬ P.
• Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P → ¬ Q.

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Rules of Inference in Propositional logic(contd.,):
 The compound statements are equivalent to each other, which we can prove using truth table:

 Hence from the above truth table, we can prove that P → Q is equivalent to ¬ Q → ¬ P, and Q→ P is
equivalent to ¬ P → ¬ Q.

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Types of Inference Rules:
1. Modus Ponens:
 The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and it states that if P and P → Q
is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It can be represented as:

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Types of Inference Rules(contd.,):
2. Modus Tollens:
 The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true, then ¬ P will also true. It can be
represented as:

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Types of Inference Rules(contd.,):
3. Hypothetical Syllogism:
 The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever P→Q is true, and Q→R is true. It
can be represented as the following notation:

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Types of Inference Rules(contd.,):
4. Disjunctive Syllogism:
 The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true, then Q will be true. It can be
represented as:

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Types of Inference Rules(contd.,):
5. Addition:
 The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that If P is true, then P ∨Q will be true.

Example:

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Types of Inference Rules(contd.,):
6. Simplification:
 The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also be true. It can be represented as:

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Types of Inference Rules(contd.,):
7. Resolution:
 The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q ∨R will also be true. It can be
represented as

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