MTH 3105: Discrete Mathematics

Propositional Logic
Rosen 1.1 – 1.3

Lecture 2: Aug 19
 Logic
• Crucial for mathematical reasoning
• Used for designing electronic circuitry

• Logic is a system based on propositions.

• A proposition is a statement that is either true or
false (but not both).
• We say that the truth value of a proposition is
either true (T) or false (F).

• Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits

 Common connectives

• ¬ or ~ Negation (not)
• ∧, &, · Conjunction (and)
• ∨ Disjunction (or)
 Exclusive or (xor)
• →, ⇒, or ⊃ Implication (if…then)
• ↔, ≡, or =Bi-conditional (if and only if)
• Bi-implication (iff)
 Truth Tables
• Negation (NOT)
• Unary Operator, Symbol: 

P P
True False
False True
 Conjunction (AND)
• Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Disjunction (OR)
• Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q PQ
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Exclusive Or (XOR)
• Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q P Q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Conditional Statement

If p then q

p is called the hypothesis; q is called the conclusion

he department says:
“If your GPA is 4.0, then you don’t need to pay tuition fee.”

When is the above sentence false?

• It is false when your GPA is 4.0 but you still have to pay tuition fee.
• But it is not false if your GPA is below 4.0.

Another example: “If there is typhoon T8 today, then there is no class.”

When is the above sentence false?

 Logic Operator

 ::IMPLIES
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

onvention: if we don’t say anything wrong, then it is not false, and thus true.
 If-Then as Or

Idea 1: Look at the truth rows,

P Q P Q and take the “and”.

T T T (P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P
∧ ¬Q)
≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ [¬P ∧ (Q ∨
T F F
¬Q)]
≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ [¬P ∧ T]
F T T

≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ ¬P
F F T

≡ (P ∨ ¬P ) ∧ (Q ∨ ¬P)
≡ T ∧ (Q ∨ ¬P)
≡ Q ∨ ¬P
 If-Then as Or

P Q P Q Idea 2: Look at the false rows,

T T T negate and take the “and”.

T F F
F T T
F F T

• If you don’t give me all your money, then I will kill you.
• Either you give me all your money or I will kill you (or both).

• If you talk to her, then you can never talk to me.

• Either you don’t talk to her or you can never talk to me (or both).
 Negation of If-Then

• If your GPA is 4.0, then you don’t need to pay tuition fee.
• Your term GPA is 4.0 and you still need to pay tuition fee.

• If my computer is not working, then I cannot finish my homework.

• My computer is not working but I can finish my homework.

previous slide

DeMorgan
Precedence of Logic Operators

Operator Precedence
¬ 1
∧ 2
∨ 3
→ 4
↔ 5
 Converse , contrapositive and inverse
• For conditional statement p → q

¬q → ¬p
– Converse: q→p

¬p → ¬q
– Contrapositive:
– Inverse:
• Contrapositive and conditional statements
are equivalent

14
 Contrapositive

The contrapositive of “if p then q” is “if ~q then ~p”.

Statement: If you are a CS year 2 student,

then you are taking MTH 3105.

Contrapositive: If you are not taking MTH 3105,

then you are not a CS year 2 student.

Statement: If x2 is an even number,

then x is an even number.

Contrapositive: If x is an odd number,

then x2 is an odd number.

Fact: A conditional statement is logically equivalent to its contrapositive.

 Proofs

Statement: If P, then Q

Contrapositive: If Q, then P.

T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
 If, Only-If

• You will succeed if you work hard.

• You will succeed only if you work hard.

r if s means “if s then r”

We also say s is a sufficient condition for r.

r only if s means “if r then s”

We also say s is a necessary condition for r.

You will succeed if and only if you work hard.

p if and only if (iff) q means p and q are logically equivalent.

 Math vs English

Parent: if you don’t clean your room, then you can’t watch a DVD.

C D

This sentence says

So
In real life it also means

Mathematician: if a number x greater than 2 is not an odd number,

then x is not a prime number.

This sentence says

But of course it doesn’t mean

 Necessary, Sufficient Condition

Mathematician: if a number x greater than 2 is not an odd number,

then x is not a prime number.

This sentence says

But of course it doesn’t mean

ing an odd number > 2 is a necessary condition for this number to be prime.

ing a prime number > 2 is a sufficient condition for this number to be odd.
 Necessary AND Sufficient Condition

 ::IFF
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Note: P Q is equivalent to (P Q) (Q P)

Note: P Q is equivalent to (P Q) ( P Q)

he statement “x is an even number if and only if x2 is an even number” true?

 Argument

An argument is a sequence of statements.

All statements but the final one are called assumptions or hypothesis.
The final statement is called the conclusion.
An argument is valid if:

whenever all the assumptions are true, then the conclusion is true.

If today is Monday, then yesterday is Sunday.

Today is Monday.

Yesterday is Sunday.
 Modus Ponens

If p then q. If typhoon, then class cancelled.

p Typhoon.
q Class cancelled.

assumptions conclusion

p q p→q p q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F

Modus ponens is Latin meaning “method of affirming”.

 Modus Tollens

If p then q. If typhoon, then class cancelled.

~q Class not cancelled.
~p No typhoon.

assumptions conclusion

p q p→q ~q ~p
T T T F F
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T

Modus tollens is Latin meaning “method of denying”.

 Equivalence

A student is trying to prove that propositions P, Q, and R are all

true.
She proceeds as follows.
First, she proves three facts:
• P implies Q
• Q implies R
• R implies P.
Then she concludes,
``Thus P, Q, and R are all true.''
Proposed argument: assumption

( P  Q), (Q  R ), ( R  P ) Is it valid?

P Q R
conclusion
 Valid Argument?

( P  Q), (Q  R ), ( R  P ) Is it valid?

P Q R
assumptions conclusion
P Q R OK?
T T T T T T T yes
T T F T F T F yes
T F T F T T F yes
T F F F T T F yes
F T T T T F F yes
F T F T F T F yes
F F T T T F F yes
F F F T T T F no

To prove an argument is not valid, we just need to find a counterexample.

 Valid Arguments?
assumptions conclusion

p q p→q q p
T T T T T
If p then q.
q T F F F T
p
F T T T F
F F T F F

Assumptions are true, but not the conclusion.

If you are a fish, then you drink water.

You drink water.
You are a fish.
 Valid Arguments?
assumptions conclusion

p q p→q ~p ~q
T T T F F
If p then q.
~p T F F F T
~q
F T T T F
F F T T T

If you are a fish, then you drink water.

You are not a fish.
You do not drink water.
Exercises
 More Exercises

Valid argument True conclusion

True conclusion Valid argument

 Tautologies and Contradictions

• A tautology is a statement that is always true.

• Examples:
• R(R)
 (PQ)(P)(Q)

• If ST is a tautology, we write ST.

• If ST is a tautology, we write ST.
 Tautologies and Contradictions
• A contradiction is a statement that is always
false.
• Examples:
• R(R)
 ((PQ)(P)(Q))

• The negation of any tautology is a contradiction,

and the negation of any contradiction is a
tautology.
 Contradiction

If you can show that the assumption that the statement

p is false leads logically to a contradiction,
then you can conclude that p is true.

You are working as a clerk.

If you have won Mark 6, then you would not work as a clerk.
You have not won Mark 6.
 Logical Equivalences (1)
1. ¬¬p ⟺ p double negation
2a. (p ∨ q) ⟺ (q ∨ p) commutative laws
b. (p ∧ q) ⟺ (q ∧ p)
c. (p ⟷ q) ⟺ (q ⟷ p)
3a. [(p ∨ q) ∨ r] ⟺ [p ∨ (q ∨ r)] associative laws
b.[(p ∧ q) ∧ r] ⟺ [p ∧ (q ∧ r)]
4a. [p ∨ (q ∧ r)] ⟺ [(p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ distributive laws
r)] ∧ (q ∨ r)] ⟺ [(p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧
b.[p
r)]
5a. (p ∨ p) ⟺ p idempotent laws
b.(p ∧ p) ⟺ p
6a. (p ∨ 0) ⟺ p identity laws (1-tautology, 0-
b.(p ∨ 1) ⟺ 1 contradiction)
c.(p ∧ 0) ⟺ 0
d.(p ∧ 1) ⟺ p
7a. (p ∨ ¬p) ⟺ 1
b.(p ∧ ¬p) ⟺ 0
 Logical Equivalences (2)

8a. ¬(p ∨ q) ⟺ (¬p ∧ ¬q) DeMorgan laws

b.¬(p ∧ q) ⟺ (¬p ∨ ¬q)
c.(p ∨ q) ⟺ ¬ (¬p ∧ ¬q)
d.(p ∧ q) ⟺ ¬ (¬p ∨ ¬q)
9. (p ⟶ q) ⟺ (¬q ⟶ ¬p) contrapositive
10a. (p ⟶ q) ⟺ (¬p ∨ q) implication
b. (p ⟶ q) ⟺ ¬(p ∧ ¬q)
11a. (p ∨ q) ⟺ (¬p ⟶ q)
b. (p ∧ q) ⟺ ¬(p ⟶ ¬q)
12a. [(p ⟶ r) ∧ (q ⟶ r)] ⟺ [(p ∨
b.q)[(p
⟶⟶ r] q) ∧ (p ⟶ r)] ⟺ [p ⟶
13. (p(q⟷ ∧ r)]
q) ⟺ (p ⟶ q) ∧ (q ⟶ equivalence
14.p)
[(p ∧ q) ⟶ r] ⟺ [p ⟶ (q ⟶ exportation law
15.r)]
(p ⟶ q) ⟺ [(p ∧ ¬q) ⟶ 0)] reductio ad absurdum
 Knights and Knaves

Knights always tell the truth.

Knaves always lie.

A says: B is a knight.
B says: A and I are of opposite type.

Suppose A is a knight.
Then B is a knight (because what A says is true).
Then A is a knave (because what B says is true)
A contradiction.

So A must be a knave.
So B must be a knave (because what A says is false).
 Which is true?

Which is false?

“The sentence below is false.”

“The sentence above is true.”