09/12/2024

A.2 Forces and momentum

 09/12/2024
Vectors
10k
m

10k
m 14.1km

100ms-1

5ms-1
100.1ms-
1
 09/12/2024
Resolving Vectors
Consider a diagonal push:

This force is given by:

F1 = F sin θ
F
F1
θ
F2

This force is given by:

F2 = F cos θ
 Resolving Vectors – example
09/12/2024

questions
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the
following:
1) 2)
10 20N
N
35O
50O

Work out the size and direction of the resultant force:

3) 4)
20N
8N 15N
10N
50O 45O
80O 30O
 09/12/2024
Free body force diagrams
1) Draw a free body force 2) A car pulls a caravan along
diagram for a ladder against a the M25. Draw a free body force
wall. diagram for the caravan.

3) Draw a free body force 4) Draw a free body force

diagram for a 4-wheel drive car diagram for a 2-wheel drive
driving up the M1. (engine at the front) car driving
up the M1 as well.
 09/12/2024
Introduction to Forces
A force is a physical quantity that describes
the interaction between bodies.
When bodies interact, forces are experienced by the
bodies.
When bodies stop interacting, the forces stop.

A force can:
• change the motion of an object – set it in motion or
stop it from moving
• change the shape or size of a body.
 09/12/2024
Introduction to Forces
In this section, we are going to look at how forces
affect the motion of objects. We say that a force
is applied to, acts on, or is exerted on or by a
body.

Force, F, is a vector quantity. This means force has a

magnitude (how strong the force is) and a direction
in which the force is applied. Force is measured in
newtons (N).
 09/12/2024
Types of forces
Contact forces:

Friction – a force acting against anything moving or

trying to move
Two types of friction:
1. Static friction
2. Dynamic friction
 09/12/2024
Types of forces

Viscous drag (Fd) Where:

 - fluid viscosity
– a contact force that
opposes the movement r – radius of sphere
of a sphere through a  - velocity of the
fluid sphere through the
fluid
Fd = 6r
 09/12/2024
Stokes’ Law
When a sphere moves through a liquid the
movement of the liquid relative to the sphere is
laminar. It’s as though the particles of the fluid
that are next to the sphere “stick” to it and move
along with it. That’s quite interesting, but it would
be even better if it was mathematical…
George
Consider a sphere of radius r moving with Stokes, 1819-
a velocity v relative to a fluid with viscosity 1903
η:
Viscous drag Fd = 6πηrv

This is called Stokes’ Law,

after me. It ONLY works for
spheres moving at low
speeds (i.e. laminar flow) Viscous
drag
 09/12/2024
Types of forces

Buoyancy or Where:
upthrust(Fb)  - density of the fluid
V – volume of fluid
– a contact force acting displaced
on a body due to the g – gravitational field
displacement of the strength
fluid

Fb = Vg
 09/12/2024
Upthrust in Fluids
Any object that is placed in a liquid will
experience a force called upthrust. We
can use my principle to calculate how big
that upthrust is:

Archimedes,
287-212 BC

Upthrust = weight of fluid

displaced
Weight Upthrust
𝐵=𝜌 𝑓 𝑉 𝑓 𝑔
 09/12/2024
Example questions
A block of brass is suspended from a Newton meter. It is
then submerged in water. The block is a cube of sides
3.1cm. If brass has a density of 8550kgm-3 calculate:

1) The block’s volume

2) The block’s mass

3) The block’s weight (what the Newton meter reads before

submerging)

4) The weight of the water the block displaces (i.e. the upthrust)

5) The reading on the Newton meter when the block is submerged.

 09/12/2024
Types of Forces

Tension (T)
– a contact force transmitted through a rope, string or
wire when pulled by forces acting from opposite sides
 09/12/2024
Types of Forces
Non-contact
forces:
Gravitational force (Fg or w)
- a force of attraction between all
bodies of mass
- it depends on mass and distance of
separation
- close to the Earth we use:
(Fg = mg) g = 9.8 Nkg-1
- at greater distances we use:
Fg = G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2kg-2
 09/12/2024
Weight vs. Mass recap
Earth’s Gravitational Field Strength is 9.81Nkg-1. In other
words, a 1kg mass is pulled downwards by a force of
9.81N.

w
Weight = Mass x Gravitational Field
Strength
(in N) (in kg) (in Nkg -1) m g

1) What is the weight on Earth of a book with mass 2kg?

2) What is the weight on Earth of an apple with mass 100g?

3) Nathan weighs 700N on the Earth. What is his mass?

4) On the moon the gravitational field strength is 1.6Nkg-1. What will

Nathan weigh if he stands on the moon?
 09/12/2024
Types of Forces
Electrostatic force or Coulomb force
(FE)
- a force of attraction or repulsion
between charges/charged objects
-
- it depends on charge and distance
+++
of separation ++

FE = k = 8.99x109 Nm2C-2
 09/12/2024
Type of forces

Magnetic force (Fm)

- a consequence of the
electromagnetic force and is
caused by the motion of
charges
 09/12/2024
Friction
Here’s an experiment that investigates how much friction
is between two surfaces:

What will happen if you vary M and m? What do you

expect to see?
M

m
 09/12/2024
The Coefficient of Friction
Consider our experiment again. Let’s label the forces:
R
Clearly, the value of F M
depends on two things:
1) M (in other
T
words, R)

2) The
smoothness of F
the surfaces, T
therefore…
m
Ff ≤ Mg
mg
…where μs =μ sR coefficient of static friction”
“the
 09/12/2024
An Example Question
R
Here’s a block on an inclined plane. The
plane is lifted until the block just starts to F
move and this happens when the angle is 15O.
What is the coefficient of friction?

1) Draw the forces:

15O Mg
2) Resolve parallel to the slope:

F = Mg sin 15O

3) Resolve perpendicular to the slope:

R = Mg cos 15O

4) Divide and solve:

F/R = tan 15O = μ
 09/12/2024
Static and Dynamic Friction
Here’s a block on a slope again: R
F
When the block is static (i.e.
stationary) we can say:

Ff ≤
15O Mg
μs R
When the block starts to move we can say that the value
of friction is given by:
…where μd = the “coefficient
Ff = μdR of dynamic friction”.
 09/12/2024
Newton’s 1st Law of Motion
Basically, a body will remain at rest or
continue to move with constant velocity as
long as the forces acting on it are
balanced (the sum of the vector forces is
zero).
…and an unbalanced
backwards force will Newton 1642-
1727
make me slow down…
An unbalanced forwards
force will make me
accelerate…
 09/12/2024
Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion
When body A exerts a force on body B,
body B exerts an equal and opposite force
on body A.

My third law
says that if I Newton 1642-
1727
push to the right
I will move
backwards as
well.
 09/12/2024
Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion

What will happen if I push

this satellite away from
me?
 09/12/2024
Newton’s 3 Laws recap
1) “If the forces acting on an
object are balanced then that
object is either stationary or
moving with constant speed”

2) The resultant force is

proportional to the object’s
rate of change of momentum

3) When body A exerts a force

on body B, body B exerts an
equal and opposite force on
body A.
 09/12/2024
Translational Equilibrium
Consider a man on a sloping table:
Reaction (a contact force) is ALWAYS
perpendicular to the surface.
Friction (a tangential contact force)
ALWAYS acts against motion.
Let’s combine the forces…

Resultant force is zero – this is

“translational equilibrium”. Newton 1
states that acceleration is therefore
 09/12/2024
Free body force diagrams

The Earth pulls Newton down with a

gravitational force of 700N.

directio
on n
what type
what
size

Newton pulls the Earth up with a

gravitational force of 700N.

This is a Newton III pair of

forces
 09/12/2024
Free body force diagrams 2
Consider a man standing on a table on the Earth:
 09/12/2024
Free Body Force Diagrams
For the satellite: For the Earth:
 09/12/2024
Newton I vs. Newton III
These two forces are acting on the same
body, they’re two different types of force and
the man is in equilibrium as long as the forces
balance – this is a “Newton I pair of forces”.

These two forces are acting on

different bodies, they’re both the
same type and they are always
equal and opposite – this is a
“Newton III pair of forces”.
 09/12/2024
Summary
Newton I Newton III

A law about the forces on _ A law about the forces on

_____ ____ ____ _______ _____
Concerns any _____ of forces Always concerns ____ forces
only
The forces can be ______ Both forces are ___ ______
types type
If there are two forces and The two forces are ALWAYS
the body is in equilibrium ______ ___ ________
the forces are _____ ___
________

Newton I only applies when Newton III ______ applies

the body is in ________
 09/12/2024
Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion
The acceleration of a body is proportional
to the resultant force causing its
acceleration and is in the same direction.

Newton 1642-
1727

In other words…
Resultant force = mass x acceleration
ΣF = ma
 09/12/2024
Revision questions
1) A force of 1000N is applied to push
a mass of 500kg. How quickly
does it accelerate?
2) A force of 3000N acts on a car to F
make it accelerate by 1.5ms-2.
How heavy is the car?
3) A car accelerates at a rate of 5ms- m a
2
. If it weighs 500kg how much
driving force is the engine
applying?
4) A force of 10N is applied by a boy
while lifting a 20kg mass. How
much does it accelerate by?
 09/12/2024
Slightly harder questions
1) This car has a mass of 1000kg.
The engine exerts a driving force of
5,000N and a frictional force of
2,000N acts against it. What is its
acceleration?

2) This body has a mass of

50kg and is acted on by the
forces shown. What will its 200N
acceleration be and at
which angle (to the
vertical)?

100N
 09/12/2024
Resolving Force Vectors
Another guy is dragging a 1.5kg box
along the ground with a force of 20N.
The block is stuck in a groove and
can’t move upwards. If the block
accelerates from rest to 10ms-1 in 5s 200
calculate:

1) The block’s acceleration

2) The size of the resultant force on

the block

3) The size of the frictional force on

the block
 09/12/2024
Momentum
Any object that has both mass and
velocity has MOMENTUM. Momentum
(symbol “p”) is simply given by the P
formula:
Momentum = Mass x Velocity
(in kgms-1) (in kg) (in ms-
1
) m v

What is the momentum of the following?

1) A 1kg football travelling at 10ms-1
2) A 1000kg Ford Capri travelling at 30ms-1
3) A 20g pen being thrown across the room at 5ms-1
4) A 70kg bungi-jumper falling at 40ms-1
 09/12/2024
Conservation of Momentum
The Principle of the Conservation of Momentum: In any collision or
explosion momentum is conserved (provided that there are no
external forces have an effect).
Two cars are racing around the M25. Car A collides with the back of
car B and the cars stick together. What speed do they move at after
the collision?

Speed = 50ms-1 Speed = 20ms-1

Mass = Mass = 800kg

1000kg

Mass = Speed = ??ms-1

1800kg

Momentum before = momentum after…

…so 1000 x 50 + 800 x 20 = 1800 x V…
…V = 36.7ms-1
 Momentum in different 09/12/2024

directions
What happens if the bodies are moving in opposite
directions?
Speed = 50ms-1 Speed = 20ms-1

Mass = Mass = 800kg

1000kg

Momentum is a VECTOR quantity, so the momentum of

the second car is negative…

Total momentum = 1000 x 50 – 800 x 20 = 34000 kgms-1

Speed after collision = 34000 kgms-1 / 1800 = 18.9ms-1

 09/12/2024
An example of an explosion
Mass of man
and gun =
50Kg, moving
at a speed of
2ms-1

Bullet’s
mass = 20g
What is the
velocity of
the bullet?
 09/12/2024
Another example
Consider the nuclear decay of Americium-241:

237
Np 241
Am
4
2
α
93 95

If the new neptunium atom moves

away at a speed of 5x105 ms-1 what
was the speed of the alpha particle?
 09/12/2024
More questions…
1) A white snooker ball moving at 5ms-1 strikes a red ball and pots it.
Both balls have a mass of 1kg. If the white ball continued in the
same direction at 2ms-1 what was the velocity of the red ball?

2) A car of mass 1000kg heading up the M1 at 50ms-1 collides with a

stationary truck of mass 8000kg and sticks to it. What velocity
does the wreckage move forward at?

3) A defender running away from a goalkeeper at 5ms-1 is hit in the

back of his head by the goal kick. The ball stops dead and the
player’s speed increases to 5.5ms-1. If the ball had a mass of
500g and the player had a mass of 70kg how fast was the ball
moving?

4) A gun has a recoil speed of 2ms-1 when firing. If the gun has a
mass of 2kg and the bullet has a mass of 10g what speed does
 Newton’s 2 Law and nd 09/12/2024

Impulse
Instead of F=ma Newton actually said that the force
acting on an object is that object’s rate of change of
momentum. In other words…

Force = Change in (in kgms- m

momentum
(in N)
Time (in s)
1
) v

F t
Also called “impulse”

For example, Willian takes a free kick by kicking a stationary football

with a force of 40N. If the ball has a mass of 0.5kg and his foot is
in contact with the ball for 0.1s calculate:
1) The change in momentum of the ball (its impulse),
2) The speed the ball moves away with
 09/12/2024
Example questions
1) Hattie likes playing golf. She strikes a golf ball with a
force of 80N. If the ball has a mass of 200g and the
club is in contact with it for 0.2s calculate a) the
change in momentum of the golf ball, b) its speed.
2) Sam thinks it’s funny to hit tennis balls at Dan. He
strikes a serve with a force of 30N. If the ball has a
mass of 250g and the racket is in contact with it for
0.15s calculate the ball’s change in momentum and its
speed.
3) Ciaran takes a dropkick by kicking a 0.4kg rugby ball
away at 10m/s. If his foot was in contact with the ball
for 0.1 seconds calculate the force he applied to the
ball.
4) Aidan strikes a 200g golf ball away at 50ms-1. If he
applied a force of 50N calculate how long his club was
 Newton’s 2 Law and nd 09/12/2024

Impulse
Instead of F=ma Newton actually said that the force
acting on an object is that object’s rate of change of
momentum. In other words…

Force = Change in (in kgms- p

momentum
(in N) 1
)
Time (in s)
F T
Also called “impulse”

However, if the mass of an object does not change, then

this equation can be simplified…

∆ (𝑚𝑣) 𝑚∆𝑣
𝐹= 𝐹=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
 09/12/2024
Force-Time graphs
Here’s a situation we looked at earlier…

Speed = 50ms-1 Speed = 20ms-1

Mass = Mass = 800kg

1000kg
What’s the impulse of the car on the left if the cars stick
together?

20000N

Calculate an Force
appropriate scale
for the force-time
graph shown.
Time
 09/12/2024
Energy loss in collisions
Recall the equation for Kinetic Energy:

Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity squared

in J in kg in m/s

We’ve also said that in a collision momentum is conserved (unless an

external force acts). The same cannot usually be said for kinetic
energy…
For example, consider the following collision. How much kinetic
energy is lost?
Before

Speed = 50m/s Speed = 20m/s

Mass = Mass = 800kg

1000kg
After

Speed = 20m/s Speed = 30m/s

Mass = Mass = 800kg
 09/12/2024
Energy loss in collisions
Consider a head-on collision where the cars stick together. How
much kinetic energy is lost in this example? Where does all the
energy go?
Before

Speed = 50m/s Speed = 30m/s

m=800Kg m=3000K
After g

Speed = 10m/s

In this example more kinetic energy was lost. We

say it was a “less elastic collision”. An “elastic
collision” is one where the kinetic energy is
conserved.
 09/12/2024
Work Done in Explosions
Recall the man firing the gun again:

Mass of man and gun =

50Kg, moving at a speed of
2ms-1

Bullet’s
mass = 20g

Q1. What is the velocity of the bullet?

Q2. How much work was done by the chemicals in the

gun?
 Another Kinetic Energy 09/12/2024

equation
When dealing with objects as small as particles it’s useful
to derive another equation by combining equations we
know for momentum and kinetic energy:
Ek = ½ mv2 p = mv
By combining these equations we can say:
Kinetic energy Ek =
p2
2m
Use mp = 1.67x10 -27
kg and me = 9.11x10-31kg

1) An electron has a momentum of 10-25 kgms-1.

Calculate its kinetic energy
2) Calculate the kinetic energy of an alpha particle of
momentum 9x10-20 kgms-1.
 09/12/2024
Circular Motion
 09/12/2024
Circular Motion
1) Is this car travelling at constant speed?

2) Is this car travelling at constant velocity?

 09/12/2024
Centripetal Acceleration
If the velocity is changing then it must be accelerating...

Va This change in velocity

is towards the centre of
the circle so the
acceleration is towards
the centre of the circle –
ΔV
“Centripetal
Acceleration”
Vb
 09/12/2024
Radians
To further understand circular motion we need to use a
different system for measuring angles:

Old method New method

s
r

Angle = 300 Angle = s/r rad

 09/12/2024
Radians
Calculate the following angles in radians:
15cm
1) 2)
1.5cm
2cm

6cm

3) 2.05c 4)
50.24
m
m

5m 8m
m
 09/12/2024
Centripetal Acceleration
Consider a circle:
v1
v1 θ
v2 Δv
v2
r
If we assume θ is very
small then v1 = v2 = v
θ
Therefore θ = Δv/v

Also θ = vΔt/r

Therefore Δv/v = vΔt/r

Δv/Δt = v2/r

a = v2/r
 09/12/2024
More Exciting Equations
Let’s start with this equation: a = v2/r

From the last slide a = v2/r but F=ma so F = mv2/r

centripetal force F = mv2/r

The “angular speed” is the “angular distance” ω = θ/t

divided by time, or ω = θ/t
The total time period T for one revolution must
therefore be the time taken to complete 2π ω = 2π/T
revolutions, or ω = 2π/T
“Frequency” is how often something happens
every second, so T = 1/f. Therefore ω = 2πf ω = 2πf

For a circle, v = 2πr/T. However, T = 2π/ω. Therefore: v = rω

Acceleration a = v2/r, therefore a = rω2 a = rω2

Finally, this must mean that F = mrω2 F = mrω2

 09/12/2024
Example questions
1) A disc spins twice per second. Calculate its angular speed.

2) Calculate the angular speed of the Earth.

3) Oli spins a conker around his head using a 50cm long string. The
conker has a mass of 0.1kg and he spins it with a velocity of 2ms-
1
. Calculate the centripetal force.

4) Calculate the velocity of a satellite moving with an angular speed

of 7x10-5 rads-1 and at an altitude of 700km above the Earth
(radius 6370km).

5) Cameron drives his car in circles. If he drives with an angular

speed of 1 rads-1 how many times will he make a complete turn in
10 seconds?

6) If the combined mass of Cameron and his car is 1000kg calculate

the centripetal force if his turning circle has a radius of 3m.
 09/12/2024
A harder question
Q. When you stand on scales, what are they really
measuring?
Here’s a man standing on some scales on the equator:

1) If the man’s mass is 70kg, what is his

weight?
2) What is his period of oscillation?

3) What is the centripetal

force acting on him?

4) Therefore, what will

the scales read?

5) What is the difference between what the

scales will read and what his weight should
be?