Data Communication

and Networking
-Chapter 2 Class 12
Data Communication
 Data communication refers to the exchange
of data between a source and a receiver via
form of transmission media such as a wire
cable.
 Datum mean the facts information statistics
or the like derived by calculation or
experimentation.
 The facts and information so gathered are
processed in accordance with defined systems
of procedure. Data can exist in a variety of
forms such as numbers, text, bits and bytes.
Computer Network
 A computer network is a system that connects two
or more computing devices for transmitting and
sharing information.
 Computing devices include everything from a mobile
phone to a server. These devices are connected
using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they
can also be wireless.
 Computer networking is the branch of computer
science that deals with the ideation, architecture,
creation, maintenance, and security of computer
networks.
 It is a combination of computer science, computer
engineering, and telecommunication.
Advantages Of Computer
Networking
 Central Storage of Data –
Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can be shared and made available
to each and every user in an organization.

 Anyone can connect to a computer network –

There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a modern computer network.
The effortlessness of joining makes it workable for even youthful kids to start exploiting the
data.

 Faster Problem-solving –
Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few little procedures and each is taken
care of by all the associated gadgets, an explicit issue can be settled in lesser time.

 Reliability –
Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason equipment crashes, and so
on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on one PC, another duplicate of similar
information is accessible on another workstation for future use, which prompts smooth
working and further handling without interruption.

 It is highly flexible –
This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the chance to investigate
everything about fundamental things, for example, programming without influencing their
usefulness.
Disadvantages of Computer
Network
 It lacks robustness –
If a PC system’s principal server separates, the whole framework would end up futile.
Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire network
would also come to a standstill. To manage these issues, gigantic systems ought to have
a ground-breaking PC to fill in as a document server to influence setting up and keeping
up the system less demanding.

 It lacks independence –
PC organizing includes a procedure that is worked utilizing PCs, so individuals will depend
on a greater amount of PC work, rather than applying an exertion for their jobs that
needs to be done. Besides this, they will be subject to the primary document server,
which implies that, in the event that it separates, the framework would end up futile,
making clients inactive.

 Virus and Malware –

On the off chance that even one PC on a system gets contaminated with an infection,
there is a possibility for alternate frameworks to get tainted as well. Infections can spread
on a system effectively, in view of the availability of different gadgets.

 Cost of the network –

The expense of executing the system including cabling and equipment can be
expensive.
Communication Mode
 Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices.
 It is also known as a communication mode.
 Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected.

There are three types of transmission mode:-

- Simplex Mode of Data communication

- Half Duplex Mode of Data communication
- Full Duplex Mode of Data communication
Simplex Mode Of Data
Communication
 1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street.

 Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can
only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.
 Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can
only introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.
Half Duplex Mode of Data
Communication
 In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice versa.
 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no
need for communication in both directions at the same
time.
 The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.
 Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a
time and messages are sent in both directions.
Full Duplex Mode of Data
Communication
 Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time.
 The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.
 Example: Telephone Network in which there is
communication between two persons by a telephone line,
through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
LAN, MAN and WAN
 A local area network (LAN) is a collection of
devices connected together in one physical
location, such as a building, office, or home.
 A LAN can be small or large, ranging from a home
network with one user to an enterprise network
with thousands of users and devices in an office
or school.
Characterstics of LAN
 The coverage area is generally a few kilometers.
 Using different dedicated transmission mediums you can
achieve the transmission rate of 1 Mb/s to 100 Mbit / sec or
higher,.
 In LAN we can run multiple devices to share a transmission
medium.
 We can use the different topology mainly bus and ring in LAN.
 The communication quality is better IN LAN, the transmission
error rate is low as compared to WAN.
 LAN supports a variety of communications transmission media
such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted
pair), fiber, and wireless transmission.
 A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion, and
maintenance and LAN installation is relatively simple, with
good scalability.
Advantages of LAN
 Hardware and software can be shared
 Does not cost too much
 Private ownership
 All the user work can be stored in a central place hub
 Separate component
 It is easy to set up a security protocol to protect the LAN user from hackers
 Data can be shared because the database file stored in the server is available to the user
around the network
 It is easy to control and it is easy to manage the entire LAN
 Component and system evolution is possible
 Individual work station might survive network failure
 LAN configuration is very easy and very simple, due to the availability of required protocol in
the OS itself
 LAN user do not require own HD (hard disk) and CD - ROM drives
 The error rate is very less
 LAN improve productivity because information storage, retrieval, and other functions can be
improved
 It provides a cost-effective multi-user computer environment
 It provides a high transmission rate to accommodate the need of both user and equipment
 It allows file/ record locking
 Very high speed
Disadvantages of LAN
 It covers a small geographical area
 A virus can be spread more easily
 High degree of maintenance
 a constant need for an upgrade
 Printing can be too much slow, long print queues may develop
 A data is shared there is a greater need for security-based
 Level of maintenance continues to grow
 It is difficult to set up LAN architecture
 LAN is only as strong as its weakest link, there are many links
 Network performance degrades as the number of users exceeds
 A limited number of a system can only be connected
 In server-based LAN architecture, if server develops a fault, all
the users are affected
 Frustration if having a problem setting up
MAN
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer
network that is larger than a single building local
area network (LAN) but is located in a single
geographic area that is smaller than a wide area
network (WAN).
 Generally, it is several LANs interconnected by
dedicated backbone connections.
 It may also refer to public use networking
infrastructure in a municipality or region.
Characterstics of MAN
 The network coverage of MAN is more
massive than LAN but smaller than WAN.
 It is bounded in large geographical areas

such as a town, city.

 The data transmission speed is moderate.
 Its ownership can be public or private

parties.
 The network ranges from 5 to 60km.
Advantages of MAN
 MAN provides high-speed communication
via fiber optic cable.
 This provides a good backbone for large

networks and gives WANs more access.

 It serves many towns and cities and thus

provides great inter-connectivity in large

areas at a low cost.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps in the

transmission of data in both directions

simultaneously.
Disadvantages of MAN
 MAN needs more cables from joining connections
from one place to another.
 Greater will be the cable length, the more will be
the cost of establishing the MAN.
 At such a big distance anyone can hack the
network. One can’t put security at each point of
the network in the widespread areas, hence it
becomes easier for unwanted people to access it
for their own benefits.
 It is difficult for the system to protect from the
graphical areas of hackers and industrial
espionage.
WAN
 A wide area network (also known as WAN), is
a large network of information that is not tied
to a single location.
 WANs can facilitate communication, the
sharing of information and much more
between devices from around the world
through a WAN provider.
 WANs can be vital for international
businesses, but they are also essential for
everyday use, as the internet is considered
the largest WAN in the world.
Characterstics of WAN
 WAN has an enormous capacity and connects a large number of computers
connected over a large geographical area.
 WAN provides connecting links between LAN and MAN to the network.
 Many users can connect and communicate with each other to share data
and information in one network.
 The speed of the data transmission is sometimes fast and sometimes slow.
 The range of the WAN network is enormous to transfer the data across the
globe.
 The data rate of WAN is low as compared to the data transfer rate of the
local area network.
 WAN gives the facility of updated files and data from the server from the
update with the new data, and then the entire device is connected to the
network getting updates.
 In WAN, We can share applications and other resources with other users on
the internet like LANs.
 Wide Area Network provides you to share the data to the entire device
connected to a network.
Advantages of WAN
 WAN can cover most areas. This network can connect from one
place to another and can also connect to the whole world
which is called Internet.
 We can also share software resources and other resources with
the help of this network.
 We can save everything on this network. Files and data on a
computer called a server can also receive data from all other
connected computers.
 This network has high bandwidth.
 Because WAN has made internet, today everyone is working
online so anyone can do online business.
 These networks are spread all over the world and you can
connect with anyone in the world. WhatsApp Facebook-like
communication is possible. Apart from sending text messages,
you can also chat with video.
Disadvantages of WAN
 If the network is very large then it is very
difficult to maintain this network.
 These networks have more security issues

than LAN networks and mainstream

networks.
 It is so big and complex that it is very

difficult to handle.
 The network is not very secure so we have

to buy products like antivirus to make our

network more secure.
Transmission Medium
 Transmission is the pathway that network
entities use to contact each other.
 Computer transmission media includes

cable and wireless technologies that allow

network devices contact one another.

Types of Transmission
Media
 Guided Media
 Unguided Media
Guided Media
 Transmits signal by sending electricity or
light over a cable or wire
 Uses cabling system that guides the data

signals along a specific path

 Bounded by cabling system
 Also called bounded system
 Eg. Twisted pair cable, co-axial cable, fiber-

optic cable etc

Twisted Pair Cable
 These are a type of guided media.
 It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
 Twisted pair cables have two conductors

that are generally made up of copper and

each conductor has insulation.
 These two conductors are twisted together,

thus giving the name twisted pair cables.

Types of Twisted pair cable
 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Cable
 UTPs are a pair of two insulated copper wires
twisted together without any other insulation
or shielding and hence are called unshielded
twisted pair cables.
 They reduce the external interference due to

the presence of insulation.

 Unshielded twisted pair cables are arranged

in pairs so that we can add a new connection

whenever required.
 The DSL or telephone lines in our houses

have one extra pair in them.

UTP
 The Electronic Industries Association divides
UTP into 7 categories based on some standards.
 Cat 1
 Cat 2
 Cat 3
 Cat 4
 Cat 5
 Cat 6
 Cat 7
 H.w Write the use of these Cat cable .
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
(STP)
 These types of cables have extra insulation or protective
covering over the conductors in the form of a copper
braid covering.
 This covering provides strength to the overall structure of
the cable.
 It also reduces noise and signal interference in the cable.
 The shielding ensures that the induced signal can be
returned to the source via ground and only circulate
around the shield without affecting the main propagating
signal.
 The STP cables are also color-coded like the UTP cables
as different color pairs are required for analog and digital
transmission. These cables are costly and difficult to
install.
STP
Co-axial Cable
 Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable
specially built with a metal shield and other
components engineered to block signal
interference.
 It is primarily used by cable TV companies

to connect their satellite antenna facilities

to customer homes and businesses.
 It is also sometimes used by telephone

companies to connect central offices to

telephone poles near customers.
Co-axial Cable
Advantages
 The cost of a coaxial cable is less.
 Highly resistant to physical damage.
 Highly resistant to EMI.
 Great channel capacity.
 The transmission rate is high.
 It is small in diameter.
 It is less susceptible to noise interference
compare to twisted pair.
 It allows a high transfer rate with coaxial cable
having better shielding materials.
 It is easy to wire and easy to expand to flexibility.
Disadvantages
 It is expensive to install.
 Cost maintenance is also high.
 Inflexible construction.
 Unsupported by newer networking

standards.
 It is bulky.
 It has a more security problem.
 It does not support high-speed

transmission.
 It must be grounded to prevent

interference.
Fibre-Optic Cable
 A fiber-optic cable, also known as
an optical-fiber cable, is an assembly
similar to an electrical cable but containing
one or more optical fibers that are used to
carry light.
 The optical fiber elements are typically

individually coated with plastic layers and

contained in a protective tube suitable for
the environment where the cable is used.
Advantages
Fiber optic cables have many advantages over copper cables, including:
 Speed: Fiber optic cables can transmit data faster than copper cables.

 Distance: Fiber optic cables can transmit data over longer distances than copper cables.

 Security: Fiber optic cables are more secure than copper cables and are difficult to tap into.

 Reliability: Fiber optic cables are more reliable than copper cables.

 Flexibility: Fiber optic cables are thinner and lighter than copper cables, making them easier to
work with and less likely to break.

 Electromagnetic interference: Fiber optic cables are resistant to electromagnetic interference,

lightning, and radio signals.

 Non-corrosive: Fiber optic cables are made of glass and are non-corrosive, so they require little to
no maintenance.

 Latency: Fiber optic cables reduce latency, which can improve voice quality, allow for more apps
to be moved to the cloud, and enable faster downloads and uploads.

 Equal download and upload speeds: Fiber optic cables can provide equal download and upload
speeds, making it easier to share files and work from home.
Disadvantages
Fiber optic cables have several disadvantages, including:
 Cost

Fiber optic cables are more expensive to install than copper cables. They also
require special test equipment and installers with the right skills.

 Fragility
Fiber optic cables are made of glass and are more fragile than copper
cables. They can break if bent too much.

 Splicing
Splicing fiber optic cables is a delicate process that can disrupt a network if not
done correctly.

 Installation risk
Fiber optic cables are small and compact, so they can be easily cut or damaged
during installation or construction.
Unguided Media
 Unguided media is a type of
Transmission Media.
 Unguided media transport
electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. It is also known as
unbounded or wireless media, and does not
rely on physical pathways to transmit
signals.
 Instead, they use wireless communication
methods to propagate signals through the air
or free space.
Types of Unguided Media
 Radio Waves
 Micro Waves
 Infrared Waves
Radio Waves
 Radio waves are used for wireless
transmission of sound messages, or
information, for communication.
 The information is imposed on the

electromagnetic carrier wave as

amplitude modulation (AM) or as
frequency modulation (FM) or in digital form
(pulse modulation).
Micro Waves
 When data transmission, voice, and video
streaming occurs via electromagnetic waves(
range of frequency 1 GHz to 300 GHz) is called
Microwave communication.
 This communication system can be used for
point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
communication.
 This communication technique works over short
to medium distances.
 The connection between the sender and receiver
side’s microwave antenna can be called a
microwave link.
Infrared Waves
 Infrared Wireless Communication makes use
of infrared waves in wireless technology for
digital data transfer.
 Infrared waves belong to the

electromagnetic spectrum and have a

slightly longer wavelength than visible light,
ranging from 750 nanometers to 1
millimeter.
Terminologies for transmission
impairments
 The signal at the beginning and end of the
transmission medium are not same, called
transmission impairment.
 All the transmission medium are not perfect

and this imperfections causes transmission

impairment.
 Three types of impairment :
 Attenuation
 Distoration
 Noise
Attenuation
 It is the loss of signal's energy due to the
resistance of the medium.
 When a signal travels through medium, it

loss some of its energy and signal becomes

weak.
 To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are

used to amplify the signal.

Distortion
 Distortion means the signal changes its
form or shape.
 It occurs in composite signal, made of

different frequencies.
 Each signal component has its own

propagation speed through a medium and

therefore, its own delay in arriving at the
final destination.
Noise
 The external energy that corrupts a signal is
called noise.
 There are different types of noise in

transmission such as
 thermal noise
 induced noise
 cross talk and
 impulse noise
Jitter
 Jitter is distortion in a transmission that
occurs when a signal drifts from its
reference position.
 Jitter can be caused by variations in the

timing or the phase of the signal in an

analog or digital transmission line.
Echo
 Reflection of some of transmitted signal
back to the transmitter(origin) rather than
being carried all the way along the cable to
the far end is echo.
 Signal reflection occurs when a signal is

transmitted along a transmission medium,

such as a copper cable or an optical fiber.
Cross talk
 Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the
other, where one wire act as a sending
antenna and the other act as receiving
antenna.
 That is, it happens when the signal from one

cable gets mixed up with the signal in

another cable.
 This can happen when cables run too

closely together.
Bandwidth
 Bandwidth refers to the range of
frequencies that a medium can pass without
the loss of one half of the power contained
in the signal.
 Bandwidth of the medium decides the

quality of signal at the other end.

Network Architecture
 Network architecture refers to a network’s
structural and logical layout. It describes
how the network devices are connected and
the rules that govern data transfer between
them.
 There are two type of network based on

architecture
 Peer to Peer network
 Client/Server network
Peer to Peer network
 A peer-to-peer network is one in which
two or more PCs share files and access
to devices such as printers without
requiring a separate server computer
or server software.
 Nodes(PCs) are linked together with equal

priviliege and responsibilities for processing

the data.
 Peer to peer network is useful for small

environments, usually upto 10 computers.

Advantages
 Decentralized: There is no central server or authority, making the
network more resilient to failure.


 Efficient resource sharing: Each computer can act as both a client and
a server, which allows for more efficient resource sharing.


 Lower costs: There is no need for a central server or infrastructure,

which can reduce maintenance and update costs.


 Greater privacy: No central server can collect or store user data.



 Easier to set up: P2P networks are easier to set up and use than client-
server networks.


 Faster data transfer: Multiple peers can share the load, which
promotes faster data transfer.

Disadvantages
 Files and folders cannot be centrally backed
up.
 Files and resources are not centrally

organized.
 Ensuring that viruses are not introduced to

the network is the responsibility of each

individual user.
 There is little or no security besides the

permissions.
Client/Server network
Architecture
 A client and server networking model is a model in which
computers such as servers provide the network services to the
other computers such as clients to perform a user based
tasks. This model is known as client-server networking model.
Client
 A client is a program that runs on the local machine

requesting service from the server. A client program is a finite

program means that the service started by the user and
terminates when the service is completed.
Server
 A server is a program that runs on the remote machine

providing services to the clients. When the client requests for

a service, then the server opens the door for the incoming
requests, but it never initiates the service.
Advantages
 Centralized: Centralized back-up is possible in
client-server networks, i.e., all the data is stored in
a server.
 Security: These networks are more secure as all
the shared resources are centrally administered.
 Performance: The use of the dedicated server
increases the speed of sharing resources. This
increases the performance of the overall system.
 Scalability: We can increase the number of
clients and servers separately, i.e., the new
element can be added, or we can add a new node
in a network at any time.
Disadvantages
 Traffic Congestion is a big problem in
Client/Server networks. When a large number of
clients send requests to the same server may
cause the problem of Traffic congestion.
 It does not have a robustness of a network, i.e.,
when the server is down, then the client requests
cannot be met.
 A client/server network is very decisive.
Sometimes, regular computer hardware does not
serve a certain number of clients. In such
situations, specific hardware is required at the
server side to complete the work.
Internet, Intranet,
Extranet
 The Internet is a huge network of millions of computers
and related devices from all corners of the globe through
which users are able to communicate, exchange
information, and partake in general resources.
 Its mechanism is more decentralized and does not have
a specific owner; it works only as a common idea shared
by various institutions, governments, and users.
 The Internet is the tool that links people, companies, and
organizations, offering various opportunities for
cooperation and development, as well as offering
various possibilities to find the necessary information,
using Internet resources, such as websites and services,
research data, and social networks.
Intranet
 An Intranet is a local area network that has been
designed for use within an organization by its employees
to share information as well as work together.
 An Intranet is also constructed from the technologies of
the Internet from TCP/IP, HTTP, and web browsers but
exist behind a security firewall and has only a limited
number of authorized users.
 Its use is to enhance the cooperation internally, control
the distribution of facilities and to work more effectively.
 These include company news that include the latest
updates posted internally to and including personnel
directories, project management applications and access
to databases all of which assist the organization in
enhancing its efficiency.
Extranet
 An Extranet is an extended form of an Intranet that
enables secure communication and collaboration
between an organization and external entities,
such as suppliers, partners, or clients.
 While it uses Internet protocols to facilitate
connectivity, an Extranet is controlled and
accessible only to authorized users with login
credentials.
 The primary purpose of an Extranet is to extend
the reach of internal resources to trusted external
users while maintaining security through firewalls,
encryption, and access control measures.
Network Tools - Packet
Tracer
 Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual
simulation tool designed by Cisco Systems
that allows users to create network topologies
and imitate modern computer networks.
 The software allows users to simulate the
configuration of Cisco routers and switches
using a simulated command line interface.
 Packet Tracer makes use of a drag and drop
user interface, allowing users to add and
remove simulated network devices as they
see fit.
Remote Access Tool
 Remote Login is a process in which user can login
into remote site i.e. computer and use services that
are available on the remote computer.
 With the help of remote login a user is able to
understand result of transferring and result of
processing from the remote computer to the local
computer.
 A remote access tool (RAT) is a type of software that
enables a local user to connect to and access a
remote computer, server or network. It enables
connectivity of two or more computers/network
nodes that are on separate networks and/or in
different geographical locations.
Networking Connecting
Devices
 Network Adapers (NIC- Netwok Interface Card
or Network cards or LAN cards)
 A network adapter is the component of a
computer’s internal hardware that is used for
communicating over a network with another
computer.
 It enables a computer to connect with another
computer, server or any networking device
over an local area network (LAN) connection.
 A network adapter can be used over a wired or
wireless network.
Modem
 Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator. The
modem is defined as a networking device that is used
to connect devices connected in the network to the
internet.
 The main function of a modem is to convert the
analog signals that come from telephone wire into a
digital form.
 In digital form, these converted signals are stored in
the form of 0s and 1s.
 The modem can perform both the task of modulation
and demodulation simultaneously.
 Modems are majorly used to transfer digital data in
personal systems.
HUB
 Hub is a device that links multiple
computers and devices together.
 They serve as the center of a local area

network (LAN).
 In a hub, each connected device is on the

same subnet and receives all data sent to

the hub. The hub then forwards that data
out to all other connected devices, creating
an efficient system for sharing data
between users.
Switch
 A network switch connects devices within a
network (often a local area network, or LAN
*) and forwards data packets to and from
those devices.
 Unlike a router, a switch only sends data to

the single device it is intended for (which

may be another switch, a router, or a user's
computer), not to networks of multiple
devices.
Router
 A router is a device that connects two or
more packet-switched networks or
subnetworks.
 It serves two primary functions: managing

traffic between these networks by

forwarding data packets to their intended
IP addresses, and allowing multiple devices
to use the same Internet connection.
Bridges
 Bridges are used to connect two subnetworks
that use interchangeable protocols. It
combines two LANs to form an extended LAN.
 A bridge accepts all the packets and amplifies
all of them to the other side.
 The bridges are intelligent devices that allow
the passing of only selective packets from
them.
 A bridge only passes those packets addressed
from a node in one network to another node in
the other network.
Repeater
 Repeaters are defined as a networking
device that is used to amplify and generate
the incoming signal.
 Repeaters work at the

physical layer of the OSI model.

 The main aim of using a repeater is to

increase the networking distance by

increasing the strength and quality of
signals.
Gateway
 A gateway is a network node used in
telecommunications that connects two networks
with different transmission protocols together.
 Gateways serve as an entry and exit point for a
network as all data must pass through or
communicate with the gateway prior to being
routed.
 In most IP-based networks, the only traffic that
does not go through at least one gateway is
traffic flowing among nodes on the same local
area network (LAN) segment.
Network Topology
 Network topology is the arrangement of the
elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a communication
network.
 Network topology can be used to define or
describe the arrangement of various types of
telecommunication networks.
 Physical topology is the geometric
representation of all the nodes in a network.
There are six types of network topology which
are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology,
Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid
Topology.
Bus Topology
 The bus topology is designed in such a way
that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.
 Each node is either connected to the
backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
 When a node wants to send a message over
the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the
network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
Advantages of Bus
Topology
 Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly
connected to the cable without passing through a
hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
 Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair
cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support upto 10 Mbps.
 Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar
technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.
 Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have
any effect on other nodes.
Disadvantages
 Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite
simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
 Difficult troubleshooting: It requires
specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then
it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
 Signal interference: If two nodes send the
messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices
to the network would slow down the network.
Ring Topology
 Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with
connected ends.
 The node that receives the message from the
previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
 The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is
unidirectional.
 The data flows in a single loop continuously
known as an endless loop.
 It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is
connected to other node and having no
termination point.
Advantages
 Network Management: Faulty devices can be
removed from the network without bringing the
network down.
 Product availability: Many hardware and
software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
 Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and
easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is
very low.
 Reliable: It is a more reliable network because
the communication system is not dependent on
the single host computer.
Disadvantages
 Difficult troubleshooting: It requires
specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then
it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
 Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to
the failure of the overall network.
 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices
to the network would slow down the network.
 Delay: Communication delay is directly
proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.
Star Topology
 Star topology is an arrangement of the network in
which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch or a central computer.
 The central computer is known as a server, and
the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
 Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect
the computers.
 Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection
devices in a physical star topology.
 Star topology is the most popular topology in
network implementation.
Advantages
 Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star
topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to
inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator
has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
 Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are
automatically accommodated.
 Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
 Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are
cost-effective.
 Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to
the open ports on the hub.
 Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
 High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages
 A Central point of failure: If the central
hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to
communicate with each other.
 Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes

difficult when a significant amount of

routing is required.
Tree Topology
 Tree topology combines the characteristics of
bus topology and star topology.
 A tree topology is a type of structure in which

all the computers are connected with each

other in hierarchical fashion.
 The top-most node in tree topology is known

as a root node, and all other nodes are the

descendants of the root node.
 There is only one path exists between two

nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it

forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages
 Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology
is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e.,
signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
 Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the
existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree
topology is easily expandable.
 Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network
is divided into segments known as star networks which
can be easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection: Error detection and error correction are
very easy in a tree topology.
 Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not
affect the entire network.
Disadvantages
 Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault
occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult
to troubleshoot the problem.
 High cost: Devices required for broadband

transmission are very costly.

 Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on

main bus cable and failure in main bus cable

will damage the overall network.
 Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices

are added, then it becomes difficult to

reconfigure.
Mesh Topology
 Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network
in which computers are interconnected with each
other through various redundant connections.
 There are multiple paths from one computer to
another computer.
 It does not contain the switch, hub or any central
computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
 The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN
implementations where communication failures are
a critical concern.
Advantages
 Reliable: The mesh topology networks are
very reliable as if any link breakdown will
not affect the communication between
connected computers.
 Fast Communication: Communication is

very fast between the nodes.

 Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new

devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.
Disadvantages
 Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number
of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
 Management: Mesh topology networks are
very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored
carefully, then the communication link failure
goes undetected.
 Efficiency: In this topology, redundant
connections are high that reduces the efficiency
of the network.
OSI Reference Model
 The OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Model is a set of rules
that explains how different computer
systems communicate over a network.
 OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model
consists of 7 layers and each layer has
specific functions and responsibilities.
Physical Layer
 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is
the Physical Layer.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices.
 The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits.
 Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them
to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together. Common physical layer devices are Hub,
Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
Data Link Layer
 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-
node delivery of the message.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure
data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.
 Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to
as Frame.
 Switches and Bridges are common Data Link
Layer devices.
Network Layer
 The network layer works for the transmission of
data from one host to the other located in different
networks.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available.
 The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in
the header by the network layer.
 Segment in the Network layer is referred to
as Packet.
 Network layer is implemented by networking
devices such as routers and switches.
Transport Layer
 The transport layer provides services to the
application layer and takes services from the network
layer.
 The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments.
 It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the
complete message.
 The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
 Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP
NetBIOS, TLS/SSL(Transport Layer Security/Secure
Sockets Layer.
Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is also called
the Translation layer.
 The data from the application layer is

extracted here and manipulated as per the

required format to transmit over the
network.
 Protocols used in the Presentation Layer

are SSL, MIME(Multipurpose Internet Mail

Extension), , etc.
Session Layer
 Session Layer in the OSI Model is
responsible for the establishment of
connections, management of connections,
terminations of sessions between two
devices.
 It also provides authentication and security.
 Protocols used in the Session Layer are

NetBIOS, PPTP.
Application Layer
 At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack
of layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications.
 These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network.
 This layer also serves as a window for the
application services to access the network and
for displaying the received information to the
user.
 Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP,
FTP, DNS, etc.
IP addressing protocol
 An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a unique numerical
identifier for every device or network that connects to the
internet.
 Typically assigned by an internet service provider (ISP), an
IP address is an online device address used for
communicating across the internet.
 There are two versions of IP addresses that are commonly
used on the internet: IPv4 and IPv6.
 An IPv4 address is expressed as a set of
four dotted decimal numbers, where each octet is
separated by a period, such as 192.168.35.4.
 The three digits in the first octet represent a particular
network on the internet while the rest of the digits
represent the actual host address within the local network
Class of IP Address
 The 32-bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are
given below:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E
 Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes
D and E are reserved for multicast and experimental purposes
respectively.
 The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for
network ID and host ID and the number of total networks and
hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns an IP address to each device that is
connected to its network.
 Class A
 IP addresses belonging to class A are

assigned to the networks that contain a

large number of hosts.
 The network ID is 8 bits long.
 The host ID is 24 bits long.
 IP addresses belonging to class A ranges

from 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255.

Class B
 IP address belonging to class B is assigned
to networks that range from medium-sized
to large-sized networks.
 The network ID is 16 bits long.
 The host ID is 16 bits long.
 IP addresses belonging to class B ranges

from 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255.

Class C
 IP addresses belonging to class C are
assigned to small-sized networks.
 The network ID is 24 bits long.
 The host ID is 8 bits long.
 IP addresses belonging to class C range

from 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255.

Class D
 IP address belonging to class D is reserved
for multi-casting.
 Class D does not possess any subnet mask.

IP addresses belonging to class D range

from 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.
 IP addresses belonging to class E are

reserved for experimental and research

purposes.
 IP addresses of class E range from

240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255
Private IP address
 Private IP Addresses are those addresses that work
within the local network.
 These addresses are non-routable on the Internet.
 The address is basically assigned by the network
router to your particular device.
 The unique private IP address is provided to every
device which is on the same network.
 In this way, devices communicate with one another
on the same network without connecting to the
entire Internet.
 In this way, Private IP addresses are able to provide
more security within a particular network.
Public IP Address
 a Public IP address is defined as a unique numerical
value that is assigned to the particular device
connected in the network that makes use of internet
protocol for communication and transmission.
 This basically offers a globally recognizable address
that enables user’s devices to actually transmit and
receive the data or packets across a wide range of
networks, which is called Internet Public IP
addresses are actually routable on the Internet
which means that they can be accessed and
communicated through any device, from any part or
from any region of the world.
Subnet Mask
 A subnet mask is a 32-bit number created
by setting the host bits to all 0s and setting
network bits to all 1s.
 In this way, the subnet mask is separated the
IP address into the host
address and network address.
 The broadcast address is always assigned to
the "255" address, and a network address is
always assigned to the "0" address.
 Since the subnet mask is reserved for a special
purpose, it cannot be assigned to the host.