TENSION MEMBERS

1
 Introduction

A member subjected to two pulling forces applied at its ends is

known as a tension member.
The load should be applied axially with no eccentricity with
regard to the end connections.
No bending stresses should be induced except those due to self
weight, and these are neglected in design.
 Introduction

Eccentricity may exist due to:

1) Member not be perfectly straight
2) Eccentricity in connections

If eccentricity exists:
3) Bending stresses are considered in the design
4) Net area of section is modified
 Introduction

Unlike RCC structures, tension members need special

consideration in steel structures.

The DL or Self weight of the RCC structures causes the

structure to stay mostly in compression. Thus tension rarely
causes in RCC Structures.

Structures experiencing tension we try to construct steel

structures instead of RCC.
 Introduction

A member subjected only to axial tension is supposed to be most

efficient and economical because:

1) It does not buckle even beyond yield stress

2) The cross section is subjected to uniform stress

3) Stress = Load / C/s Area

5
 Introduction
Tension members, in case, connected using bolts have following issues

The presence of bolts holes influences the stress distribution as the stress concentrates

near the bolt holes.

The section b-b (Net section) is highly stressed than section a-a (Gross section).

In case of bolted connections, stresses in tension members are calculated based on

minimum net c/s area available.

Section a-a = 1508

Section b-b = (150 -215) 8

6
Examples of Tension members in Structures
• Used in Trusses, Towers, Bracings, Hangers, Bridges, Arches etc.
C/s of Tension members in Structures
Types
Strands- Wire wound helically around a central core.
Wire ropes- strands wound helically over core.
Cable- strands wound in rope like fashion. Strands, wire ropes and cables are used in bridges
and hangers and hoisting purposes.
Bars and rods - Used as sag rods and Tie rods in trusses etc.
Flats and plates - used as connecting system for built up sections, Foot Bridges etc.
Angles: Single angle and double angle sections for roof trusses and bracing
Channels and I-sections, and built-up sections for heavy loads (Bridge)

9
Types of Tension members in Structures
Single (RSJ) and Built-up Structural Shapes

1) Open Section such as Angles, Channels and I sections

For light and medium load angle sections are preferred

Angle section is preferred over flat bars because

a) Angle given better rigidity than a flat bar

b) Angle is more suitable in case of stress reversals

c) Flat bars are not suitable to carry compressive stress due

to their small radius of gyration in one direction

10
Types of Tension members in Structures
Single (RSJ) and Built-up Structural Shapes

2) Built-up or compound Structural Shapes

These are formed to meet the required area which cannot be

provided by a single rolled section

For same area, builtup sections have greater moment of

inertia hence more rigid

More desirable in case of reversal of stresses

Tie plates and flats are provided to tie built up sections

Theoretically, area of connecting plates is not considered

11
Types of Tension members in Structures
3) Closed sections such as circular, square, rectangular or
hollow

These are used for

1) Bracings
2) Main members in truss system

Rule of Thumb:

3) When welded connections are used plates, tubes or tees

are provided
4) When bolted connections are used, angles, Channel and I
sections are provided

12
Angle Sections
A single angle section with bolted connections produces eccentricity
about both the planes (x-x and y-y)

In a welded connection the design may be modified to reduce

eccentricity

Two angle sections, when placed back to back on same side of

gusset plate experience eccentricity about one axis

Two angle sections, when placed back to back on either side of

gusset plate experience no eccentricity

13
 Net Sectional Area of Tension Members
The net sectional area of a tension member is equal to the Gross
Area minus sectional area of the holes.

Why to calculate Net Sectional Area?

The unit stress in tension member is increased due to the holes.

Area of steel to which load is distributed is reduced.

Stress concentration occurs along the edges of the holes.

All the above factors lead to

failure of the section.

14
Net Sectional Area of Tension Members

for Flats and Plates

15
 Net Sectional Area of Tension Members

for Angles with One Leg Connected using bolts

An = Ago + Anc

g = Gross
n = Net
O = Outstnding
C = Connecting
Ago = (Lo – t/2) x t
Anc = (Lc – t/2 – n dh) x t
16
 Net area cont.

Angle Connected with One Leg only

17
 Net Sectional Area of Tension Members

for Angles with Both Legs Connected using bolts

It is developed into an equivalent plate section

The overall width and gauge length are obtained

from the cross-section of the equivalent plate

We calculate the net area

using equations for plate
section

18
 Net Sectional Area of Tension Members

for Angles with Both Legs Connected using bolts

19
 Effective Net Area of Tension Members
A member is weakened by connection which also reduces its
efficiency.
An
For Angles and Tees connected thro’
one leg, the net area obtd. is to be An = Net area
reduced for following factors
• Ductility Factor (k1)
Punched- increase dh by 2mm
• Hole forming factor (k2)
Drilled
• Geometry Factor (k3)
• g/d: η is more for lesser g/d (0.9-1.14)
• Shear Lag Factor (k4)

𝑨 𝒏 ,𝒆𝒇𝒇 =𝒌 𝟒 𝑨 𝒏
: expressed as 1- 0.9
= connection length

20
Ductility Factor (k1)

The net section strength of a tension member increases with

Ductility of steel.

The redistribution of stress is better in ductile materials in

plastic stage.

Hence, for ductile materials, it is assumed that the stress

distribution is uniform when loaded beyond yield stress

For common structural steel exhibiting the minimum

specified ductility, k1 = 1.
21
Factor for Method of Fabrication (k2)
The bolted connections are made by
1) Punching
2) Drilling
In punched holes the material around hole is deformed.
The strength of members with the punched holes is 10 –
15% less than that of drilled holes
This is due to loss of ductility of material round punched
holes
1) Punching (k2 = 0.85)
2) Drilling (k2 = 1)
However, IS code specifies increase in hole dia. by 2mm for
punched holes hence no need to consider k2 (i.e. k2 = 1).
22
Geometry Factor (k3)
Efficiency of bolted joints is directly proportional to ratio of
guage/diameter (i.e. g/d).
Smaller g/d ratio, higher is the efficiency
The adjacent metal gross cross-section restrains the
reduction of area due to yielding of the metal on net section
between bolt holes.
This increases tensile strength
For large gauge distances, the metal between the bolt holes
experiences non-uniform strain, hence, causes local rupture
However, IS code specifies k3 = 1.

23
Shear Lag Factor (k4)
For plate or flat bar with bolt holes, the stress is transferred
uniformly across the section.
However, when shapes which have multiple elements, are
connected with only one of their elements, stress distribution
is not uniform across the section. This is because of Shear
Lag Phenomenon

24
Shear Lag Effect
Force is transferred to a tension member by a gusset or the
adjacent member connected to one of the legs either by bolting or
welding
Force thus transferred to one leg by the end connection locally gets
transferred as tensile stress over the entire c/s by Shear
Hence, the tensile stress on the section from the first bolt hole up to
the last bolt hole will not be uniform
Connected leg will have higher stresses at failure even of the order
of ultimate stress while the outstanding leg stresses may be even
below yield stress
However, at sections away from the end connection, the stress
distribution becomes more uniform

25
Shear Lag Effect (summary)
Due to partial connection
The connected leg is overstressed
The outstanding leg is understressed
The connected leg carries more of the load, and
it takes some transition distance for the stress to
be spread uniformly across the whole angle
Thus, stress distribution in both legs is different

26
Shear Lag Effect (summary)
The stress in the connected leg may exceed yield stress
fy and go into strain hardening range
Away from the joint connection, the stress is more
uniform
In the transition region shear transfer lags
Since shear lag reduces the effectiveness of the
component plates of the tension member that are not
connected directly to the gusset plate, the outstanding
legs are kept shorter in length
Therefore, the unequal angles with longer edge
connected are preferred.

27
In case of I section, because of the internal transfer of the forces
from flange region into web region will be by shear

28
Whereas in case of angles, transfer of force from one leg to the
other will be by shear
And because one part Lags behind the other, the phenomenon is
referred to as Shear Lag

29
Shear Lag Effect (summary)
Depends on: 1) Distribution of steel in the section
2) Length of load transfer, L
Independent of:
1) Type of load
2) Type of connection
It affects both bolted and
Welded connections.
Bolted connections are more affected due to holes

30
Shear Lag Factor (k4)

: expressed as 1- 0.9
X = Distance from gusset plate to connection CG
= connection length= Longest

Effective Net Area of a

Tension Member is given
by
𝑨 𝒏 ,𝒆𝒇𝒇 =𝒌 𝟒 𝑨 𝒏

31
 Effective net area cont.

For preliminary sizing of a tension member, Effective net Area may be

expressed as
Cl. 6.3.3
𝑨 𝒏 ,𝒆𝒇𝒇 =  𝑨 𝒏
where = 0.6 for number of bolts 1 or 2
= 0.7 for 3 bolts
= 0.8 for number of bolts ≥ 4 or equivalent weld length
Note:
1) For members with all elements transferreing loads,
=1
2) For such members, Effective Area = Net Area
3) For flats and plates, = 1, since the cross-section has
only one element and that is connected
4) Thus, effective net area of flats and plates is = Net
area
32
 Limit States
Limit state of yielding
To prevent excessive deformation, initiated by yielding, the load on the gross
section must be small enough so that the stress on the gross section is less than the yield
stress.

Limit state of rupture

To prevent failure of the tension member by net section rupture,

33
Tearing strength of an angle and other sections connected through one leg only

The design strength, Tdn, governed by tearing at net section is given by

An = net area of the cross section

Anc = net area of the connected leg
𝑤 𝑓 𝑦 𝑏𝑠
𝛽=1.4 − Ago = gross area of the outstanding leg
𝑡 𝑓 𝑢 𝐿𝑐
𝛽= 0.7-1.4 t = thickness of the angle leg

34
Block Shear
This type of failure is characterized by tearing out of a segment or block of material at the end of a
member for certain connection configurations, and in coped beams. The block shear failure
occurs along a path involving tension on one plane and shear on a perpendicular plane.
When applied tensile load is increased, the yield strength of the weaker plane is approached.
However, this plane does not fail as it is restrained by the stronger plane. The load can still be
increased until the rupture strength of the stronger plane is reached. During this time, the weaker
plane is yielding. The total strength equals the rupture strength of the stronger plane plus the yield
strength of weaker plane.

35
 Design Procedure

The following procedure may be followed in the design of an axially loaded tension
members:
1. The net area required An to carry the factored load T is obtained by,

where T is the factored design load, fu is the ultimate strength of the material,
An is the net effective area of cross section, a = 0.6, 0.7 or 0.8 as appropriate
and = 1.25.
2. The net area calculated thus is increased suitably (25% – 40%) to compute
the gross sectional area.
3. The required gross area is also determined from its yield strength by

where fy is the yield strength of the material and = 1.1

36
 Design Procedure cont.

4. From IS Handbook No.1, a suitable rolled section/built-up section providing a cross-

sectional area matching with the computed gross-sectional area is selected.

5. The number of bolts required to make the connection is calculated. These are arranged in a

suitable pattern and the net area of the section provided is calculated.
6. The design strength Td of the trial section is calculated. This will be minimum of the

strengths Tdg , Tdn and Tdb.

The design strength Td should be more than the factored design load.
7. The slenderness ratio of the member is checked as per the IS specification.

37
 Slenderness Ratio
• IS: 800–2007 specifies the maximum effective slenderness ratio as the ratio of effective length
KL of the member to the appropriate radius of gyration.
• Theoretically, there is no limitation on the slenderness ratio of tension member; stability is of
little concern.
• In many situations, however, it is good practice to limit the slenderness of tension members.
For example, they may be subjected to load reversals during transportation, shipping, erection
etc.
• Also, in case the axial load in a slender tension member is removed and if even small
transverse loads are applied, undesirable vibrations or deflections might occur, e.g., the
condition can occur in a bracing rod subjected to wind loads.

38
Thank You!

39