INTRODUCTION TO

COMPUTING
 Introduction
 The computer is fast becoming the universal machine
of the twenty-first century. Early computers were large
in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals.
Thus they were confined to the laboratories and few
research institutes. They could only be programmed
by computer engineers. The basic applications were
confined to undertaking complex calculations in
science and engineering. Today, the computer is no
longer confined to the laboratory. . Computers, and
indeed, computing have become embedded in almost
every item we use.
 Definitions
 Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw
data as input from the user and processes these data
under the control of set of instructions (called program)
and gives the result (output) and saves output for the
future use. It can process both numerical and non-
numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.
 A computer has four functions:
a. accepts data Input
b. processes data Processing
c. produces output Output
d. stores results Storage
 Brief History of a Computer
A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices such as
the ancient Chinese abacus, the Jacquard loom (1805) and Charles Babbage’s
“analytical engine” (1834). It would also include a discussion of mechanical, analog and
digital computing architectures. As late as the 1960s, mechanical devices, such as the
Merchant calculator, still found widespread application in science and engineering.
During the early days of electronic computing devices, there was much discussion about
the relative merits of analog vs. digital computers. In fact, as late as the 1960s, analog
computers were routinely used to solve systems of finite difference equations arising in
oil reservoir modeling. In the end, digital computing devices proved to have the power,
economics and scalability necessary to deal with large scale computations. Digital
computers now dominate the computing world in all areas ranging from the hand
calculator to the supercomputer and are pervasive throughout society. Therefore, this
brief sketch of the development of scientific computing is limited to the area of digital,
electronic computers. The evolution of digital computing is often divided into
generations. Each generation is characterized by dramatic improvements over the
previous generation in the technology used to build computers, the internal organization
of computer systems, and programming languages. Although not usually associated with
computer generations, there has been a steady improvement in algorithms, including
 Generations of Computer

The First Generation (1940 – 1956)

 The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums
for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
 They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal
of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions
 First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations
and they could only solve one problem at a time.
 Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts
The Second Generation (1956 – 1963)

 Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of

computers.
 One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes
 Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and
more reliable
 Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.
 Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words
 Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts
for output.
 These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory,
which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology
The Third Generation (1964 – 1971)

 The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers.
 Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.
 Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers.
 It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.
 Users interact with third generation computers through keyboards and
monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory.
 Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience
because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors
The Fourth Generation (1971 – today)
 The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
 As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to 5
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
 Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.

The Fifth Generation (Today to future)

 Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI).
 Still in development.
 The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality
 The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable
of learning and self-organization.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
 Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response
time can be very fast.
 Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors in
computing are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There is
in-built error detecting schemes in the computer.
 Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and
instructions. This capacity varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built
up in K (Kilo) modules where K=1024 memory locations.
 Automatic: Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it can run automatically
each time it is opened. The individual has little or no instruction to give again.
 Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness
and lack of concentration. It will perform the last job with the same speed and
accuracy as the first job every time even if ten million jobs are involved.
 Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps.
Modern computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like on-line
processing, multi-programming, real time processing e.t.c.
 CLASSES OF COMPUTER
 Analog Computers: This class of computer are special purpose
machines that surfaced in the late forties (1948). They are used solving
scientific and mathematical equations or problems. An example is the
thermal analyzer. Data and figures are represented by physical
quantities such as angular positions and voltage.
 Digital Computers: They are machines made up of combinations of
chips, flip-flops, buttons and other electronic devices to make them
function at a very fast speed. A digital computer has its numbers, data
letters or other symbols represented in digital format. They are mostly
special purpose machines unless minor specifications are included in
the design.
 A computer that combines the features of a digital and analog computer
is called a hybrid computer.
 TYPES OF COMPUTER
Super Computers
 A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any
given time. These machines are built to process huge amounts of
information and do so very quickly.
 Supercomputers are built specifically for researchers or scientists
working on projects that demand very huge amounts of data variables;
an example is in nuclear research, where scientists want to know
exactly what will happen during every millisecond of a nuclear chain
reaction. (To demonstrate the capability of super computers, for an air
pollution control project that involves more than 500,000 variables, it
will take a mini computer about 45 hours to complete the simulation
process while it will take a super computer 30 minutes only).
 They are big in size, generate a lot of heat and are very expensive.
(Super computers are made by CRAY Company).
Mainframe Computers
 The largest types of computers in common use are the mainframe computers. They
are designed to handle tremendous amounts of input, output and storage.
 They are used mainly by large organization like the PHCN, NITEL, and CBN.
 Other users access mainframe computers through terminals. Terminals consist of a
type of keyboard and a video display i.e. monitors. The mainframe is usually in the
computer room (Mainframe computers are made by IBM, Boroughs & Univac).

Mini Computers
 These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for
special purposes or small-scale general purposes.
 The best way to explain the capabilities of mini computers is to say they lie
between mainframes and personal computers. Like mainframes, they can handle a
great deal more input and output than personal computers.
 Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user, many can handle
dozens or even hundreds of terminals.
 Advances in circuitry means modern mini computers can out-perform older
mainframes of the 60s. (Examples are Digital Equipment Company’s PDP II and Vax
rang)
Workstations
 Between mini computers and micro computers – in terms of processing power is a class of computers
known as workstations.
 A workstation looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one person, although it is still
more powerful than the average personal computer.
 The differences in the capabilities of these types of machines are growing smaller. They significantly
differ from micro computers in two ways: the central processing unit (CPU) of workstations are
designed differently to enable faster processing of instructions and most of the micro computers can
run any of the four major operating systems.
 Workstations [(Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)] use UNIX operating system or a variation of
it. (A note of caution: Many people use the term workstation to refer to any computer or terminal that
is connected to another computer. Although this usage was once a common meaning of the term, it
has become out dated) (The biggest manufacturers of workstations are Sun Microsystems).
Micro Computers/Personal Computers
 The term microcomputers and personal computers are used interchangeably to mean the small free-
standing computers that are commonly found in offices, homes and classrooms.
 Many micro computers are built specially to be used in watches, clocks, and cameras. Today, PCs are
seriously challenging mainframes and mini computers in many areas. In fact today PCs are more
powerful than mainframes of just a few years ago, and competition is producing smaller, faster
models every year.
TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS
 THE DESKTOP: This is the first type of PCs and the most common. Most desktops are
small enough to fit on a desk, but are a little too big to carry around. •
 THE LAPTOP: They weigh about 10pounds (4.5kg). They are battery – operated
computers with built–in screens. They are designed to be carried and used in locations
without electricity. Laptops typically have an almost full –sized keyboard. •
 THE NOTEBOOK: They are similar to laptops and PCs, but smaller. They weigh about 6
to7 pounds (2.7 – 3.2kg). As the name implies, they are approximately the size of a
notebook and can easily fit inside a brief case.
 THE PALMTOP: They are also known as personal digital assistance (PDAs) and are the
smallest of portable computers. Palmtops are much less powerful than notebooks or
desktops models and feature built-in applications such as word processing. They are
mostly used to display important telephone numbers and addresses.
FUNCTIONS OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS
Personal computers can do a lot of things. The most common tasks computers
perform include:
 Writing documents such as memos, letters, reports and briefs
 Budgeting and performing accounting tasks
 Analyzing numeric information
 Searching through lists or reports for specific information
 Scheduling and planning projects.
 Creating illustrations
 Communicating by using electronic mail
 Advertising products and services.
COMPONENTS OF A PERSONAL COMPUTER
A personal computer is not a single unit. A typical computer consists of several
basic parts or components that work together. To perform any computer task
you need two major components: the hardware and the software.
[1] The hardware is the physical components of a computer system. Generally
you can think of the hardware as any part of the computer that you can see or
touch. Although the hardware of a computer is capable of performing marvelous
tasks, it cannot accomplish any of them without the vital instructions that the
software provides.
[2] The software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. You
can’t see or touch the software, although you can see packages that contain the
software. It is typically distributed on CD-ROM disc and is installed on the
computer hard drive.
HARDWARE COMPOINENTS
The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the following:
 [1] Input Devices: Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and instructions
from a user. Input devices have been built in many forms to help in communicating with the
computer. The most common input devices are the keyboard and the mouse.
 i. The Keyboard: The keyboard of the personal computer comes in a number of styles.
The various models may differ in size and shape, but except for a few special purpose
keys, MDS keyboards are laid out almost identifiably. The most common keyboard used
today was established by IBM. The computer keyboard is more than just a typewriter. It
contains all of the keys required for typing letters, numbers, plus the keys for entering
commands and moving around on the screen. There are 101 keys arranged in groups:
Alphanumeric, Numeric, Function and Arrow/Cursor movement keys, and Computer keys.
 ii. A mouse is a pointing device that enables you to quickly move around on the screen,
and to select commands from menus rather than type the commands. A 10 mouse is
useful because it enables the user to point at items on the screen and clicks a button to
select the item. It is convenient for entering certain data.
 iii. Track Balls: A trackball is an input device that works like an upside-down mouse. You
rest your hand on the exposed ball and the fingers on the button. To move the cursor
around the screen, you roll the ball with your thumb. Trackballs are much popular with
notebook computers. They require less desk space than the mouse.
iv. The Joystick: This is a pointing device commonly used for games. It is not used for
business applications.
v. The Pen: It is an input device that allows a user to write on or point at a special pad
on the screen of a pen-based computer, such as a personal digital assistant (PDAS).
vi. The Touch Screen: A computer screen that accepts input directly into the monitor;
users touch electronic buttons displayed on the screen. It is appropriate in environment
where dirt or weather would render keyboards and pointing devices useless.
vii. The Scanner: This is an input device used to copy images into a computer memory
without manual keying. It works by converting any image into electronic form by
shinning light on the image and sensing the intensity of reflection at every point. There
are several kinds of scanners. These includes: hand held, flatbed, and sheet-feds.
viii. The Bar-Code Reader: This is one of the most commonly used input devices after
the keyboard and mouse. It is commonly found in supermarkets and department stores.
This device converts a pattern of printed bars on products into a product number by
emitting a beam of light frequently from a laser that reflects off the bar code image. A
light sensitive detector identifies the bar-code image by special bars at both ends of
the image. Once it has identified the barcode, it converts the individual bar patterns
into numeric digits.
[2] Processing Devices: Basically two components handle processing in a computer: the central
processing unit (CPU) and the memory.
a. The Central Processing Unit (CPU): The central processing unit (CPU) is a tiny
electronic chip known as the micro processor located in the system unit. It is installed on the main
circuit board of the computer, the motherboard. The CPU as the name implies is where information
is processed within the computer. In this regard, you might think of the CPU (processor) as the
brain of the computer. The CPU is otherwise known as microprocessor. Every CPU has at least two
basic parts. The control unit and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The control unit coordinates all
the computer activities and contains the CPUs instruction to carry out commands. The ALU is
responsible for carrying out arithmetic and logic functions. In other words, when the control unit
encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic and logic it refers it to the ALU.
b. Memory: What happens to all the information we put into the computer: before, while
and after information is processed? It is held in the computer memory or Random Access Memory
(RAM). The memory to which we are referring here is not the kind of long-term storage that allows
you to save work on a floppy disk and months later to use it, but rather a short term holding area
that is built into the computer hardware. While the CPU is fast and efficient, it cannot remember
anything by itself. It often refers to the memory in the computer for software instruction and to
remember what it is working on. The term RAM and memory are often interchangeable. RAM refers
to the way the CPU searches through memory for the information it needs. For the workings of a
memory, information is stored in memory chips. The CPU can get information faster from RAM than
it can from a disk. A computer then reads information or instruction from disks and stores the
information in the RAM where it can get the information quickly. The CPU processes the information
and then returns to the RAM.
[3] Storage Devices:
Among the most important part of a computer system are the devices that allow you to
save data or information. The physical components or materials on which data are stored
are called storage media. A storage device is a piece of hardware that permanently stores
information. Unlike electronic memory, a storage device retains information when electric
power is turned off. There are several storage devices and primary among them are:
a. The Floppy Disk: The floppy disk is a circular flat piece of plastic made of a flexible
(or floppy) magnetic material on which data are recorded. Floppy disk drives store
data on both sides of the disks. Earlier computers stored data on only a single side
of the floppy disk.
b. The Hard Disk: The hard disk is generally not visible because hard disks are
usually enclosed within the system unit. The hard disk is a stack of metal platters
that spin on one spindle like a stack of rigid floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where
the disk and drive are separate, the hard-disk drive, or hard drive is the whole unit.
Generally you cannot remove the hard disk from its drive; however some
manufacturers make removable hard disks that plug into a separate drive unit.
c. The CD-ROM: CD-ROM disks are hard, plastic, silver – a colored disk. CD-ROM is an
acronym for Compact Disc Read – Only Memory. This implies that the disk can only
be read. You cannot change or overwrite the contents of a CD-ROM disk.
d. Tape Drives: A tape drive is a device that reads and writes data to the
surface of a magnetic tape, generally used for backing up or restoring the
data of an entire hard disk.
e. The Zip Drive: Zip drives are an alternative to tape backup units or tape
drives. A zip drive can be internal or external. Zip drives have removable
cartridges or disk. A zip drive holds about 100MB to 250 MB of Data.
[4] Output Devices: Output devices return processed data, that is, information
back to the user. In other words, output devices allow the computer ‘talk’ to us. The
most common output devices are the monitor and the printer. Others include
modems and speakers.
a. The Monitor: The monitor is an output device that enables the computer to
display to the user what is going on. It has a screen like that of a television. It is
commonly referred to as the screen or display. It is the main source for output of
information from the computer. As data is entered through an input device, the
monitor changes to show the effects of the command. Messages displayed on the
screen allow the user to know if the command is correct.
b. The Printer: The printer is an output device that produces on hard copy or a
print out on a paper i.e. it takes data from its electronic form and prints it out on
paper. There are three principal types of printers; Laser, Inkjet and Dot – Matrix.
c. The Sound Card: Sound Cards, otherwise known as sound boards, is a hard
ware board. It is a device that produces audio sounds and usually provides ports in
the back of a computer for external speakers. It is installed in one of the expansion
slot inside the system unit’s motherboard.
d. The Modem: The modem is a device that allows a computer to communicate
with another computer through a telephone line. Both computers need compatible
modem. With a modem, a computer and required software, you can connect with
other computers all over the world.