Human Evolution

EVOLUTION (PART TWO)

 Chimpanzees are the closest living relative of humans. Humans and
chimpanzees share a common ancestor that lived about 6 million years ago.
Chimpanzees have also evolved over 6 million years and so modern
chimpanzees do not look like their common ancestor.
 Time-line for the existence of the 3
hominid lineages
Homonid:
Extinct
bipedal
ancestors
of humans.

Ardipithecus Australopithecus Homo

+/-4,5 mya +/- 4 mya +/- 2,5 mya
Fossil evidence of human evolution
Genetic evidence has proved that we share a common ancestor
with the chimpanzees. However, before gene sequencing
technology was available, paleoanthropologists recognised our
similarities to African apes.
By comparing early hominid fossils with the skeletons of apes,
the first theories of human evolution were developed.

Chimpanzee Australopithecus Modern Human

 Similarities between Humans and
African Apes
Stereoscopic vision
Large brain compared to body size
Reduced sense of smell – rely more on the sense of sight
Similar dental structure – omnivorous diet
Free rotating arms
Bare finger tips/ridges/fingernails
Opposable thumbs
Few offspring
We share 98% of our DNA
Our closest primate relative:
The Chimpanzee
 Anatomical differences between
African apes and Humans
• Bipedalism (foramen magnum, spine, pelvic girdle)
• Brain size
• Teeth
• Prognathous
• Palate shape
• Cranial ridges
• Brow ridges
Bipedalism: Foramen magnum

Human skull
Foramen magnum ventrally
underneath the skull with
the vertebral column
underneath the skull.

Ape skull
Foramen magnum is at the
back of the skull and the
articulation of the neck
vertebra is at the back of the
head.
Comparison of foramen magnum between ape and human

APE HUMAN
Face parallel to vertebral
column
Pelvic girdle long and
narrow

Face at 90 degrees
Pelvic girdle short and vertebral column
wide
 Comparison of pelvis of Ape,
Australopethicus and Modern man
 Spine is C-
shaped which
allows it to
support the
weight of the
abdomen
hanging below
it.
Apes are able of upright locomotion, but
generally use their fore-limbs to support
them in a type “knuckle-walk”.
Long arms.
Feet and
hands are
similar in
structure.
Chimp hand Chimp foot
Branchiation Chimps are arboreal
Chimp foot Human foot
 Brain size

Chimp brain size: Human brain size:

177g 364g
Human and Chimp
brain –
1800ml vs 300ml
 The rise of man

Foramen magnum moving forward from chimp

to modern man. Brain case increases.
Note how the
brain case gets
bigger as the
hominids evolve
Advantages of a bigger brain
They could use
tools and weapons.
They could
communicate and
develop language
allowing them to
have a complex
social life.
Dentition
• Dental arcade is
parallel giving rise
to the snout:
PROGNATHOUS
• Diastema present
• Huge canines
• Has 4 incisors
just like humans
Chimp: dental arcade

diastema
Chimp Hominid Human
 Brow
ridge

Prognathous
Male gorilla skull showing cranial ridge
Cranial ridge/sagittal crest for
muscle attachment
Genetic evidence of Human Evolution

Mitochondrial DNA remains relatively unchanged from generation to

generation. The Human Genome Project has shown that all humans contain
a mutation in their mitochondrial DNA that links all humans to a common
ancestor that lived in Africa about 150 000 years ago – Mitochondrial Eve.
Cultural evidence
Evolutionary trends found in
the anatomical features of
the three Hominid genera:
Ardipithecus
Australopithecus
Homo
Time-line for the existence of the 3
hominid lineages

Ardipithecus Australopithecus Homo

+/-4,5 mya +/- 4 mya +/- 2,5 mya
Ardipithecus ramidus
“Ardi”
Tim White (1992)
Ethiopia
4,5mya
Oldest hominid
discovered
Ardipithecus Ramidus (Ardi)
 Brain case 300ml

Ardi very monkey-like. Small cranium – similar to

modern chimps. Plant diet. No evidence of stone
tools.
Tree dwelling, came
down for short periods
and stood upright.
Lived in woodlands.
Very primitive form of
bidpedalism.

Short: +- 1,2 m tall.

Arms longer than legs.
Grasping big toe.
Small cranium.
Prognathous.
Reduced teeth.
Australopithecus
afarensis
Lucy
Don Johanson
(1974)
Hadar, Ethiopia
4,4-2,7 mya
Skull of Australopithecus afarensis
Short: 1,1m tall. 30 kg.
Small cranium (about a third of
modern humans).
Arms longer than legs.
Curved fingers.
Still a fairly pronounced
prognathous.

Definite early bipedalism:

Shape of spine and pelvis,
position of foramen magnum.
Reduced canines, smaller molars.
Professor Donald Johanson discovered the
3,2my old Lucy
Recreation of Australepithecus
Used very
primitive stone
tools
Australopithecus
afarensis
Lucy
 Lucy compared to a
modern human:
Definite early
bipedalism:
Big toe in line with
rest of toes.
Shape of spine and
pelvis, position of
foramen magnum.
Reduced canines,
smaller molars.
Afarensis dental arcade: note the parallel tooth
arrangement
Autralopithecus afarensis made the Laetoli footprints – two hominids, one larger than the
other walking alongside each other. The footprints were found in Tanzania and are 3,6
million years old. Discovered by Mary Leakey (1978)
Advantages of bipedalism:
Frees hands for carrying
food and tools.
Better view of
surroundings in search of
food or predators.
More efficient movement.
Smaller body surface
exposed to sun – faster
cooling.
 Australopithecus
boisei
Nutcracker man
Mary Leakey
(1959)
Tanzania
2-1.1 mya

Similar to modern chimps.

Sagittal crest.
Robust prognathous.
 Australopithecus africanus
Mrs Ples, Taung Child, Littlefoot found at Sterkfontein lived in South Africa about 3.3 to 2.6
million years ago
 Australopithecus
africanus
Little Foot
Ronald Clarke & Philip
Tobias
Sterkfontein Caves
4.1-3.3mya
Oldest South African
hominid fossil
discovered
Australopithecus africanus
 Australopithecus
africanus
Mrs Ples
Robert Broom (1947)
Plesianthropus Sterkfontein Caves
3.3-2.1mya
Australopithecus
robustus
Robert Broom
(1938)
Kromdraai Caves
1.8-1.2mya
Australopithecus sediba
Australopithecus sediba
“Karabo”
Matthew Berger (2008)
1.95-1.78mya
Malapa Cave, Maropeng
Professor Berger unveiled sediba
 Australopithecus sediba – found in
Sterkfontein
The size of the actual
sediba hand
Transitional species between Australopithecines
and Homos
Characteristics shared with
apes:
Short.
Longer arms than legs.
Curved fingers.
Divergent big toe.
Small cranium (1/3 of humans).
Pronounced prognathous.
Grew rapidly into adulthood.
Characteristics shared with
humans:
Early bipedalism.
Shape of spine, pelvis, foramen
magnum.
Reduced canines, smaller
molars.
 Homo habilis
Handyman
Jonathan Leakey
(1960)
Tanzania
2,4-1,4mya
First hominid
fossils found
with basic tools.
Homo habilis (Handyman) used tools – has a larger brain (428- 625) and smaller teeth

Evidence of
recognizable stone
tools
 Homo habilis
Arms still longer than legs
Small cranium(600cc)
Smaller brow ridges
Smaller teeth

Teeth similar to
humans
Bipedal
Big tow in line with
rest of toes
 Homo erectus
Turkana boy
Richard Leakey (1984)
Lake Turkana, Kenya
2mya-200 000 years ago
 Homo erectus
Very similar to modern
humans
Could control fire
First hominids to leave
Africa
 Homo erectus
survived till 600 000 years ago
Homo erectus
Controls fire and this
allows him to control
his environment.
Food could be cooked –
no need to eat raw
meat and tough
vegetables.
 Homo erectus – similar to modern man – brain
900ml, uses weapons and tools is a good hunter

Eating more cooked

meat allowed their
brain to grow
dramatically over a
relatively short period
of time. This allowed
them to be more
intelligent and were
better able to survive.

Cooked food is tastier and easier to digest.

Could protect themselves against predators and
move into colder environments.
Homo erectus migrates out of Africa
Homo heidelbergensis
Florisbad man
T Dreyer (1932)
Free State
600 000 years ago
In 2013 a new fossil was identified at Sterkfontein :
Homo naledi who had some really primitive features and some
really advanced features. Strangely there is evidence that they
buried their dead in places where they would not be found.
It took a while for the Homo naledi remains to be dated. The age published in
2017 took scientists by surprise: they were between 236,000 and 335,000
years old. 'This is astonishingly young for a species that still displays primitive
characteristics found in fossils about two million years old,' says Prof Stringer.
Homo neanderthalensis
The first Neanderthal fossil was
found in the Neander Valley in
Germany.
Homo neanderthalensis - the Neanderthal – has a bigger brain
case than Homo sapiens but disappeared around 40 000 years
ago.
Neanderthals – show signs of religion and
cultural evolution
Cave paintings –
cultural
evolution.
Ornaments,
beads
The increase in cranial capacity in the Homo sp. led to:
Tool making, art work, made clothing, used fire for cooking &
warmth. Burying the dead.
All cultural indicators of the evolution of intelligence over time.
 Homo
sapiens –
lived in
shelters
and
herded
animals
Homo sapiens
Brain case:
1200 -1800ml
Short arms
Small jaw
Upright forehead
Homo sapiens
200 000 years ago
 Out of Africa Hypothesis
Thousands of fossils, combined with genetic and cultural
evidence, clearly support the hypothesis that human evolved in
Africa and then travelled to the rest of the globe.

Humans originated in Africa. Ardipithecus,

Austropithecus and Homo habilis fossils
have been found only in Africa.
 Approximately 2 mya,
Homo erectus moved out
of Africa. This was due to
climate change. Reduced
rainfall caused forest to
shrink and grasslands
started to expand. The
number of animals
increased which
encouraged Homo erectus
to hunt and to follow the
animal migrations.

Around 90 000 years ago, a second migration out of

Africa occurred. This time it was Homo sapiens

The “Out of Africa Hypothesis” states that all

humans share a common ancestor that originated
in Africa and then migrated out of Africa to the
rest of the world.
 Genetic evidence supports the
Out of Africa hypothesis

Mitochondrial DNA remains relatively unchanged from generation to

generation. The Human Genome Project has shown that all humans contain
a mutation in their mitochondrial DNA that links all humans to a common
ancestor that lived in Africa about 150 000 years ago – Mitochondrial Eve.
East African Rift Valley Hominid Fossil Sites
Dry climate and shallow
lakes provided ideal
conditions for fossil
formation. The
presence of volcanic
igneous rock enables
palaeontologists to
accurately date fossils.
FOSSIL SITES IN SOUTH AFRICA
The Cradle of
Humankind in
Maropeng has the
most numerous
and diverse
hominid fossil site
in the world.
“Little Foot”, the
oldest fossil found,
dated between 4,1
and 3,3 million
years old is found
here.
Sterkfontein Museum
Sterkfontein Caves
 Alternatives to Evolution
Creationism: A supreme being (God) created all
forms of life in a very short period of time.
Details of how life was formed vary amoung
different religions and cultures.
Intelligent Design: Also believe that all life was
created by a supreme intelligent being –
however they believe that their evidence is
scientifically based rather than faith based.
Literalism: Religious texts are interpreted in the
literal sense. For example, according to the
Bible, God created the universe and all life on
earth in 6 days. Eg: 6 x 24hrs = 144 days
Literalism contests all scientific evidence for
evolution.
Theistic Evolution: Embraces religion and
evolution – they believe that a supreme being
(God) created all life on earth, but they also
understand the scientific evidence for evolution.