Foundation Engineering

Lecture

By: Tesafaye T.

1
1. Site Exploration

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1. Site Exploration

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“ The process of exploring to
characterize or define small scale
properties of substrata at
construction sites is unique to
geotechnical engineering.
In other engineering disciplines,
material properties are specified
during design, or before
construction or manufacture, and
then controlled to meet the
specification. Unfortunately,
subsurface properties cannot be
specified; they must be deduced 4
1.1. Purpose of exploration
The primary objective is to analyze the
nature of the soil in all aspects, basically is
to find out strength characteristics of the
sub-soil over which the structure has to be
built.
Soil exploration includes:
 Selection of alternative construction sites or
the choice of the most economical sites,
 Selection of alternative types or depth of
foundation,
 Selection of alternative methods of
construction,
 Evaluation of the safety of existing structure,
 Location and selection of construction
materials. 5
The soil exploration should provide the
following data:
 Soil parameters and properties of different
layers (e.g. for classification, bearing
capacity or settlement calculation),
 Thickness of soil layers and depth to
bedrock (stratification of soil),
 Location of ground water level and
important groundwater related issues,
 Special problems and concerns.

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 1.2. a) Planning an exploration
program
• The planning of a program for soil
exploration depends upon:
– The nature of sub-soil
– The type of structure
– The importance of structure
• The actual planning of a subsurface
exploration program includes some
or all of the following steps:
i. Desk-study:
Assembly of all available information on
type and use of the structure, and also of
the general topographic and geological
character of the site.

7
ii. Reconnaissance of the area:
Consists of walking the site and
visually assessing the local condition,
inspection of behavior of adjacent
structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc.
Reconnaissance includes the
assessment of;
• Any previous development on site,
• Any previous grading on site,
• Any potential landslide or other
stability problems,
• Condition of nearby structure

8
iii. A preliminary site investigation:
This is usually in the form of a few borings
or a test pit to establish the types of
materials, Stratification (vertical profile) of
the soil, and possibly the location of the
ground water level.
 For small projects this step may be
sufficient to establish foundation
criteria, in which case the exploration
program is finished.
iv. A detailed site investigation:
For complex projects or where the soil is
of poor quality and/or erratic, a more
detailed investigation may be
undertaken. This may involve sinking
several boreholes, taking soil samples
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for laboratory investigations, conducting
1.2. b) Methods of exploration
It is important to investigate the surface
condition, but we basically rely on subsurface
exploration soil and rock samples obtained
by drilling vertical holes known as Borings or
by digging exploratory trenches or test pits.
Methods of determining the stratification
and engineering characteristics of sub-
surface are
 Test pits
 Boring and sampling
 Field tests
 Geophysical methods
 Laboratory tests

Test Pits
• The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil
exploration is to sink test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m.
• Test pits enable the in-situ soil conditions to be
examined visually. 10
• It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed
11
Soil Boring and Sampling
Soil Boring:
• This is the most widely used method.
• It provides samples from shallow to deeper
depths for visual inspection as well as
laboratory tests.
• The most commonly used methods of
boring are:
 Auger boring
 Wash boring
 Percussion drilling
 Rotary drilling

12
Auger boring:
Operated by hand or by power.
• Hand operated augers, = 15 to 20cm, are of
two types.
• Post-hole and helical augers
• This boring method provides highly
disturbed soil samples.
• Power operated augers (helical) can be used
to great depths, even to 30m, and used in
almost all types of soils above water table.

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Hand Augers a) helical and b) post
hole
14
This image
compares solid-
stem (left) and
hollow-stem (right)
auger flights.
15
Wash boring:
Power operated.
Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action
of a light chopping bit and jetting action of
drilling fluid, usually water, under
pressure.
 Loosened soil particles rise as suspended
particles through the annular space between
casing and drill rod.
This method best suits in sandy and clayey
soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e.
boulders) and rocks.
 Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.
Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes
in the rate of progress of boring, examination of
out coming slurry and cutting in the slurry.
Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be16
Wash boring 17
Different drill
bits

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Percussion drilling:
• Power operated.
• Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a
heavy chisel into the bottom of the hole.
• The resulting slurry formed at bottom of
borehole is removed by bailer or sand
pump.
• Because of the deep disturbance of the soil
this method of boring is not favored.
Casing is generally required.
• Maximum depth of boring is 60m.

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 Percussion Drilling
at Site

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Rotary drilling:
• Power operated.
• Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating
bit.
• This is the most rapid method for
penetrating highly resistant materials
(e.g. bed rock).
• In this method undisturbed samples
can be obtained at desired depths by
using suitable samplers.
• Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to
150m.

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Rotary Drilling & Drill bits

22
Drilling in soils prone to caving or
squeezing
• Open hole methods encounter problems in
soils prone to caving (i.e., the sides of the
boring fall in) or squeezing (the soil
moves inwards, reducing the boring
diameter).
• Caving is most likely in loose sands and
gravels, especially below the groundwater
table, while squeezing is likely in soft
saturated silts and clays.
• In such cases, it becomes necessary to
provide some type of lateral support inside
the hole during drilling.
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Drilling in soils prone to caving or
squeezing
• One method of supporting the hole is to
install casing (see Figure ), which is
temporary lining made of steel pipe. This
method is especially useful if only the upper
soil are prone to caving, because the casing
does not need to extend for the entire depth
of the boring.
• The other method is to fill the boring with
drilling mud or slurry, which is a mixture of
bentonite or attapulgite clay and water. This
material provides a hydrostatic pressure on
the walls of the boring, thus preventing
caving or squeezing. 24
25
Soil Sampling
• Laboratory test results are mainly
dependent on the quality of soil samples.
• There are two main types of soil samples
which can be recovered from bore holes
or trial pits.
 Disturbed and
 Undisturbed samples

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Soil Sampling for Geo-
stratification

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Disturbed Samples
• These are samples where the structure of
the natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of the
boring tolls or excavation equipment.
• However, these samples represent the
composition and the mineral content of
the soil.
• Disturbed samples are satisfactory for
performing classification tests such as,
sieve analysis, Atterberg limits etc.

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Undisturbed Samples
• These are samples, which represent as
closely as is practicable, the true in-situ
structure and water content of the soil.
• Undisturbed samples are required for
determining reliable information on the
shearing resistance and stress-deformation
characteristics of a deposit.
• It is virtually impossible to obtain totally
undisturbed samples.
This is due to that:
The process of boring, driving the
coring tool, raising and withdrawing
the coring tool and extruding the
sample from the coring tool, all
conspire to cause some disturbance.
In addition, samples taken from holes
may tend to swell as a result of stress
relief.
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• Samples should be taken only from a newly-
drilled or newly extended hole, with care
being taken to avoid contact with water.
• As soon as they are brought to the surface:
Core tubes ends should be sealed with
wax and capped to preserve the loss of
moisture content.
Core tubes should properly be labeled
to indicate the number of bore holes
and the depth at which they are taken
and then stored away from extremes
of heat or cold and vibration.

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Types of tube samplers
 Split Spoon Sample
 Thin-Walled Tube Sampler
 Piston Samplers

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Field [in-situ] tests
• These tests are valuable means of
determining the relative densities; shear
strengths and bearing capacities of soils
directly without disturbing effects of
boring and sampling.
• The most commonly used field tests are:
Penetration or sounding tests
Vane shear test
Plate loading test
Pile loading test

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Penetration Tests
• They are conducted mainly to get
information on the relative density of
soils with little or no cohesion.
• The tests are based on the fact that the
relative density of a soil stratum is
directly proportional to the resistance of
the soil against the penetration of the
drive point.
• From this, correlations between values of
penetration resistance versus angle of
internal friction (Φ), bearing pressure,
density and modulus of compressibility
have been developed.
• Penetration tests are classified as: Static
and dynamic penetration tests.

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Static Penetration Tests
1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test:
• This method of testing is widely used in
Scandinavia and here in Ethiopia.
• The depth of penetration is measured for
each loading after which the number of half-
turns is counted by 100kg load; the
penetration depth is then measured after 25
half-turns.
• If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less
than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven
down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

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 50 25
HT/20cm
100 75 penetration

Depth

Swedish weight sounding equipment,

penetration diagram
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• The correlation between density of frictional
soils and consistency of cohesive soils and
ht/m (half-turns per meter) are as given
below.
Frictional Soils Density
(kN/m3)
Very loose <50ht/m 11-
16
Loose 50 -150ht/m 14.5
- 18.5
Medium 150 - 300ht/m 17.5
- 21
Dense 300 - 500ht/m 17.5 -
22.5
Very dense > 500ht/m 21
– 24
Cohesive Soils Density
(kN/m3)
Soft 0 ht/m
16 –19
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Firm 0 – 100 ht/m 17.5 –
2. Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch
Cone Penetrometer Test):
• This method is widely used in Europe.
• The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600,
overall diameter 35.7mm, end area 10cm2,
rods (⅝” ), casing pipe ( ¾”).
• The rod is pushed hydraulically into the
ground at a rate of 10mm/sec.
• The pressure exerted on the rod is measured
with a proving ring, manometer or a strain
gauge.
• The cone is 1st pushed into the ground.
The force required to push the cone
20cm into the soil is recorded.
• The casing pipe is then advanced to join
the cone. The force required to push the
pipe is also recorded.
• The readings thus taken are plotted
against depth.
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38
Correlation between Cone (Point)
Resistance and
Relative Density of Frictional Soils
Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m2)

Very loose soil < 2500

Medium dense 5000 – 10,000
Dense 10,000 – 15,000
According to Meyerhof:
Very dense > 15,000
N = ¼ (Ckd)
where: N = Standard penetration
number
Ckd = Static Cone resistance
(kg/cm2)
For sand, modulus of compressibility (ES) can
be estimated from cone resistance from the
following relationship. 39
Dynamic Penetration Tests
1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
• This is the most common of the field tests
and measures the resistance of the soil to
dynamic penetration by a 50mm diameter
split spoon sampler which is driven into the
soil at the bottom of a borehole (sometimes
cased).
• The sampler is attached to drill rods and the
dynamic driving force is a 63.5kg mass
falling through a height of 76cm onto the
top of the rods.
• The sampler is initially driven 15cm below
the bottom of the borehole. It is then
further driven 30cm. The number of blows
required to drive the last 30cm is termed as
the standard penetration value denoted by
N.
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41
42
 Correlation between Number of blows (N),
Angle of Internal Friction and Relative Density
of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0-4 4 -10 10-30 30 - > 50

50
 <280 28 -300 30-360 35 - >420
400
Correlation
Relati Very between
Loose Number
Medium of blows Very
Dense (N),
ve loose Compressive Strength and
Unconfined dense
Densit
Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi
y
and Peck).
N 0 -2 2-4 4-8 8 - 15-30 >30
15
qu(kN/m2) 0 -25 25 - 50 -100 100 - 200- >40
50 200 400 0

Consisten Very soft Soft Mediu Stiff Very Har

cy m stiff d 43
• The relationship between  and Dr may
be expressed approximately by the
following equation (Meyerhof):
For granular soil, containing more than
5 percent fine sand and silt.
0=25+0.15Dr
• For granular soil, containing less than
5 percent fine sand and silt. In the
equations Dr is expressed in percent.

0=30+0.15Dr

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Correction to be applied to measured
values of SPT:
• The N values of SPT as measured in the
field may need to be corrected.

• When SPT is made in fine saturated

sands, saturated silty sands, or saturated
silts, correction is usually made for
possible build up of pore water pressure.
The SPT values, greater than 15 are
modified as follows

• N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by

Terzaghi and peck

where: N= corrected value

N’= Recorded value
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• The other type of correction is known as
correction for overburden pressure.
This correction is applied only to
cohesionless soils (dry, moist or wet). The
correction suggested by Gibbs and Holtz
and widely used is as follows.
350 N '
• N =( o '70)  2N’, for o’  280
kN/m2

• o’ = effective overburden pressure in

kN/m2

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2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test:
• This is another useful test, which is
normally used to determine the relative
resistance offered by the different soil
layers.
• The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod and
driven into the ground in the same way as
a SPT is performed. The number of blows
required to penetrate 30cms depth is
called as Nc value.
• In the case of dynamic cone penetration
test no borehole is used.

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• Experiments carried out indicate that
beyond about 6m depth, frictional
resistance on the rod increases which
gives erroneous results for Nc value.
The maximum depth suggested for this
test is about 6 m.
• If the test has to be conducted beyond
6 m depth, one has to use drilling mud
(bentonite slurry) under pressure
forced through the pipe and the cone.
• The mud solution coming out of the
cone rises above along the drill rod
eliminating thereby the frictional
resistance offered by the soil for
penetration. The former method is
called as dry method and the latter wet
method. 48
• To judge the consistency of soil from Nc
values, the general practice is to convert Nc
to N values of SPT:
Nc = N/C
Where:
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2
when bentonite is used.
Nc = 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc = 1.75N for depths between 3m and
6m
Nc Values need to be corrected for
overburden pressure in cohesionless
soils like SPT 49
Vane Shear Test
• It is used to determine the undrained
shear strength of soft clays soils.

• The apparatus consists of a vertical steel

rod having four thin stainless steel blades
(vanes) fixed at its bottom ends.

• Vane head (torsion head), complete with

pointer, stop pin, circumferential
graduated scale, calibrated torsion spring.

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51
52
• In most cases a hole is drilled to the
desired depth, where the vane shear test
is planned to be performed and the vane
is carefully pushed into the soil.
• A torque necessary to shear the cylinder
of soil defined by the blades of the vane is
applied by rotating the arm of the
apparatus with a constant speed of 0.5
degree/sec.
• The maximum torque is then measured
from which the shearing strength is
determined.
• From the measured maximum torque one
may estimate the shearing resistance of
the tested clay from the following
formula.
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 T
Cu
=  2H D  3
D  
 2 12 

where : T = Torque

D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height

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Plate Loading Test
• In this test a gradually increasing static
load is applied to the soil through a steel
plate, and readings of the settlement and
applied load are recorded, from which a
relationship between bearing pressure and
settlement for the soil can be obtained.
The test procedure:
1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the
size of the plate.
2. The plate should be properly placed in the
soil. In the case of cohesionless soil (to
prevent early displacement of soil under
the edges of the plate), the plate must be
positioned in cast in-situ concrete. 55
Dead Weight Load
Loaded platform
Pressure gauge

Hydraulic jack
Short block

Settlement dial gauge

Bearing pressure (kPa)

Bp

Settlement,
Sp (cm)
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57
4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps
(loading increment is kept constant).
5. Once completion of the test, the plate is
unloaded in the same incremental steps (to
draw the expansion curve).
• Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is
determined from settlement consideration.
• If the maximum permissible settlement, S,
of a footing of width Bf is given, the
settlement, Sp, of a plate of width Bp under
the same 2 Bf ) 2
Sp (intensity of loading is given by.
S
(B f  B p ) 2
Using the value Sp, computed from the above
equation, the loading intensity under the
footing could be read from the load settlement
curve.
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• The settlement of footing in clay is normally
determined from principles of consolidation.
However from plate load test, the
approximate settlement of footing of width B
can be determined using the following
expression.
Bf
S S p
Bp

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Limitation of Plate Loading Test:
• Plate loading test is of short duration.
Hence consolidation settlement does not
fully occur during the test.
• For settlement consideration, its use is
restricted to sandy soils, and to partially
saturated or rather unsaturated clayey
soils.
• Plate loading test can give very misleading
information of the soil is not homogeneous
within the effective depth (depth of stress
influence) of the prototype foundation.
• Plate loading test should not be
recommended in soils which are not
homogeneous at least to depth of 1½ to 2
times the width of the prototype
foundation. 60
Pile Loading Test:
• This is the most reliable means for
determining the load carrying capacity of
a pile.
• The load arrangement and testing
procedure are more or less similar to the
plate-loading test.
• From the results of this test, the
allowable bearing capacity and load-
settlement relationship of a group of
friction piles can be estimated.

61
62
Geophysical methods:
• These comprise the seismic and resistivity
methods.
Seismic Refraction Method:
• In this method shock or seismic are created
by detonating small charges or by striking
a rod or a plate near the surface. The
radiating waves are picked up and time of
travel from source recorded by detectors
known as geophones or seismometers.
• Seismic method is based on the fact that
sound waves travel faster through rocks
than through soils.

63
64
Electrical Resistivity:
• In this method four metallic spikes
to serve as electrodes are driven in
to the ground at equal intervals
along a line. A known potential is
then applied between the outermost
electrodes and potential drop is
measured between the innermost
electrodes.
• The resistivity method makes use of
the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays)
have low electrical resistivity than
others (e.g. sand or gravel).
• Seismic and resistivity methods are
normally employed as preliminary
or supplementary to other methods 65
of exploration.
Laboratory tests
The common laboratory tests that concern
the foundation engineers are
– Grain size analysis
– Atterberg limits
– Natural moisture content
– Unit weight
– Unconfined compression test
– Direct shear test
– Triaxial compression test
– Consolidation test
– Compaction test
– Chemical analysis

66
Ground Water Measurement
• Ground water affects many elements of
foundation design and construction.
• Because of this its location should be
determined in each job with reasonable
accuracy.
• The depth of water table is measured by
lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the
borehole.
• The depth can also be measured by
lowering the leads of an electrical circuit.
As soon as the open ends of the leads
touch the water in the borehole, the circuit
is completed. It is indicated by glow of the
indicator lamp.
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Depth and number of borings
Depth of Boring
The depth to which boreholes should be
sunk is governed by the depth of soil
affected by foundation bearing pressures.

According to Tomlinson the following

depths of boreholes for various
foundation conditions may be used.

1. For widely spaced strip of pad

foundations, boring depth should be
deeper than 1.5 times the width of the
foundation.

2. For raft foundations, boring depth deeper

than 1.5 times width of raft should be
used.
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3. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations
where there is overlapping of the zones of
pressure, boring depth deeper than 1.5
times width of building should be used.
4. For group of piled foundation on soil,
boring depth should be deeper than 1.5
times width of pile group, the depth being
measured from a depth of two- thirds of
the length of the piles.
5. For piled foundation on rock, boring depth
should be deeper than 3.0m inside
bedrock.
6. According to Teng, for high ways and
airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m,
but should be extended below organic soil,
fill or compressible layers such as soft
clays and silts.

69
2.Number of Borings:
• From experience Teng has suggested the
following guideline for preliminary exploration:

Project Distance between boring Minimum

(m) number of
Horizontal stratification boring for
of soil each
structure
Uniform Averag Erratic
e

Multi-story 45 30 15 4
building
One or two story 60 30 15 3
building
Bridge piers, - 30 75 1-2 for each
abutments, foundation
70
television unit
Data presentation
• The results of borings, samplings,
penetration tests and laboratory tests of a
site are usually plotted graphically on a
sheet of drawing paper.
• The graphical presentation should include.

1. A plot plan, showing the location of all

boreholes, test pits, etc and their
identification number.
2. A separate plot, showing the soil profile as
established from the drillings or test pits
records.
3. Soil profiles along given lines in the ground
surface, showing the boundaries between 71
4. The penetration number, the unconfined
compression strength, Atterberg limits,
natural moisture content, and other
appropriate laboratory data may be shown
on each boring on the soil profile.
5. The location of ground water table should
also be shown on the soil profile.

72
Depth LegendSoil type N qu  L.L p.I
0.00m Top
1.00m soil
W.T
Sandy
Silt
4.00
Dense
sand
8.00
Gravel
12.00

Hard
15.00 rock

73
74
Soil Exploration Report
Most reports have the following contents:
1. Introduction: - Purpose of investigation,
type of investigation carried out.
2. General description of the site: - general
configuration and surface features of the
site.
3. General geology of the area.
4. Description of soil conditions found in bore
holes (and test pits)
5. Laboratory test results.
6. Discussion of results of investigation in
relation to foundation design and
constructions.
7. Conclusion: recommendations on the type
and depth of foundations, allowable bearing
pressure and methods of construction.

75