AGGRESSION

ITS NATURE, CAUSES AND CONTROL

 Perspectives on Aggression: In
Search of the Roots of Violence

Describe contrasting views of why

individuals aggress against others

∙Why do some human beings aggress against

others in such frightening ways? Social
psychologists have investigated these
questions and offered many explanations.
The Role of Biological Factors: Are We Programmed
for Violence?
∙The most famous supporter of this theory was
Sigmund Freud, who held that aggression stems
mainly from a powerful death wish (thanatos) he
believed all humans possess. According to Freud,
this instinct is initially aimed at self-destruction,
but is soon redirected outward, toward others. A
related view was proposed by Konrad Lorenz, an
ethologist (Lorenz, 1966, 1974), who suggested
that aggression springs mainly from an inherited
fighting instinct which assures that only the
strongest males will obtain mates and pass their
genes on to the next generation. Until recently,
most social psychologists rejected such ideas.
Drive Theories: The Motive to Harm Others
• ∙When social psychologists rejected the
instinct views of aggression proposed by
Freud and Lorenz, they countered with
an alternative perspective: that
aggression stems mainly from an
externally elicited drive to harm others.
• ∙These theories propose that
external conditions—especially those
that create frustration—arouse a strong
motive to harm others.
10.1.3: Modern Theories of Aggression

Social Learning Perspective (Bandura, 1997)

Aggression is learned through observation and
experience.

Building on the social learning perspective, a newer

framework known as the General Aggression
Model (GAM) (Anderson & Bushman, 2002)
provides an even more complete account of the
foundations of human aggression.
Figure 10.5 The GAM: A Modern Theory of Human
Aggression (chain of events)
10.2: Causes of Human Aggression: Social, Cultural,
Personal, and Situational

Aggression - behavior intended to harm another individual,

which can be influenced by various social, cultural,
personal, and situational factors.

Domestic Violence - a pattern of abusive behavior in a

relationship where one partner seeks to gain or maintain
power and control over another.
Ray Rice - Former NFL player involved in a domestic
violence incident that raised awareness about the
complexities of aggression in intimate relationships.

Hope Solo - Olympic athlete who was arrested for alleged

domestic violence, highlighting that aggression can occur in
both genders.
Why do such assaults occur — why do people attack those who they
supposedly love the most?

Provocation from the victim - can trigger aggressive responses

in the aggressor.

Presence of others - (who else is present on the scene) can

influence the likelihood of aggression.

Alcohol consumption - increases the likelihood of aggressive

behavior by impairing judgment and lowering inhibitions.

Environmental Conditions - high temperatures and crowded

environments can increased irritability and aggression.
10.2.1: Basic Sources of Aggression: Frustration and
Provocation

• FRUSTRATION: WHY NOT GETTING WHAT YOU

WANT CAN SOMETIMES LEAD TO AGGRESSION
•
• (1) Frustration always leads to some form of aggression,
and
• (2) Aggression always stems from frustration.
 DIRECT PROVOCATION: WHEN
AGGRESSION (OR EVEN TEASING)
BREEDS AGGRESSION
Physical or verbal provocation from others is one of the
strongest causes of hu- man aggression. When we are on
the receiving end of some form of provocation from others
criticism — we consider unfair, sarcastic remarks, or
physical assaults — we tend to reciprocate, returning as
much aggression as we have received or perhaps even
more, especially if we are certain that the other person
meant to harm us.
What Research Tells Us About....

The Role of Emotions in Aggression

Strong emotions are often thought to underlie aggressive

acts, but the reality is more complex.
SOCIAL CAUSES OF AGGRESSION
1. Social exclusion— Exclusion not only
means that we do not enjoy the benefits of
social relations with others, but it also
reflects negatively on our self-image.
Research findings do indicate that social
rejection is often a powerful trigger for
aggression (Leary, Twenge, & Quinlivan,
2006). Rejection by others initiates a hostile
cognitive mindset—it activates cognitive
structures in our minds that lead us to
perceive ambiguous or neutral actions by
others as hostile in nature, and to perceive
Evolutionary theory suggests that a hostile
cognitive mindset or bias might follow from
exclusion. In the past, human beings needed others
—and cooperation with them— to survive. So, being
excluded from the group was a very serious and
threatening matter. This suggests that exclusion by
others would be interpreted as a very hostile
action.
2. Exposure to media violence is indeed one
factor contributing to high levels of violence
in countries where such materials are
viewed by large numbers of people (e.g.,
Anderson et al., 2003; Bushman & Anderson,
2009; Paik & Comstock, 1994).
Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” Studies: Early Evidence for
the Effects of Televised Violence In these famous
studies, children saw a “television program” in
which an adult model either attacked an inflated
plastic doll (top row of photos) or sat quietly. When
given a chance to play with the same toys, children
imitated the actions of the aggressive model
(bottom two rows of photos). These findings
suggested that exposure to violence in the media
may lead to similar actions by viewers.
Effects of Media Violence
Desensitization. as a result of exposure to large
amounts of violent content in television programs,
films, and video games, individuals become less
sensitive to violence and its consequences
First, as we just saw, it reduces individuals’
emotional reactions to such events so that, in a sense,
they perceive them as “nothing out of the ordinary.
Second, it strengthens beliefs about the
appropriateness of aggression, expectations about
others’ hostile intentions, and other cognitive
processes related to aggression.
Why some people are more aggressive than
others
1. Hostile Attributional Bias
Research findings have confirmed the
existence of such differences, and described
them as involving the hostile attributional bias
(Wu, Zhang, Chiu, Kwan, & He, 2014; Zhou,
Yan, Che, & Meier, 2015). People high in this
bias tend to attribute even innocent actions by
others to the fact that they are hostile.
2. The spirit of Narcissus has been said to live in individuals
who hold extremely positive—often unjustified—views of
themselves, which is where we get the word narcissism.
Interestingly, people’s narcissism often leads them
to be aggressive when others dare to question their
overblown views of themselves. They experience
what has been termed narcissistic rage, in which
they seek revenge against these “doubters,” while
simultaneously feeling threatened.

Research reveals that narcissism has two distinct

parts
GENDER AND AGGRESSION
Are men more aggressive than women?
1. According to Archer (2004) Men are indeed more
likely to engage in aggression that produces pain or
physical injury than women.
• In a study about aggression caused by strong
provocation, it was founded that males and
females are equally likely respond with some form
of aggression. However, in the absence of
provocation, males are significantly more likely
than females to respond with aggression
(Bettencourt & Miller, 1996). This suggests that
men are on a “shorter fuse” than women in this
2. Verbal aggression. Overall, there do not appear
to be significant differences between men and
women in this respect although men are more likely
to use more extreme forms of verbal aggression
than women ex. swearing. Perhaps the most
intriguing differences between women and men
with respect to aggression involves what is known
as indirect aggression—actions designed to harm
another person, but which are not performed
directly against this person. Results of a review of
existing evidence indicates that women are more
likely than men to engage in this kind of indirect
aggression, (Archer, 2004)
Situational Determinants of Aggression
Temperature and Aggression

“In the heat of Anger”, “Boiling Mad” and “Hot Tempered”

Research on the effects of heat on aggression suggests
that there is indeed a link between heat and aggression:
When people get hot, they become irritable and may be
more likely to lash out at others. However, there may be
limits to this relationship, stemming from the fact that
after prolonged exposure to high temperatures, people
become so uncomfortable that they focus on reducing
their discomfort—not on attacking others.
Alcohol and Aggression
“Dangerous Combination”
It is widely assumed that people become more
aggressive when they consume alcohol. This idea is
supported by the fact that bars and nightclubs are
often the scene of violence. However, while alcohol
is certainly consumed in these settings, other
factors might be responsible for the fights—or
worse— that often erupt.
Why does alcohol produce such effects? Does alcohol lower their
threshold for responding aggressively to provocations?

Recent findings suggest that the effects of alcohol on aggression

may stem, at least in part, from reduced cognitive functioning and
what this does, in turn, to social perception. Specifically, the findings
of several studies indicate that alcohol impairs higher-order
cognitive functions such as evaluation of stimuli and memory. This
may make it harder for individuals to evaluate others’ intentions
(hostile or non-hostile), and to evaluate the effects that various forms
of behavior on their part, including aggression, may produce.

Alcohol has been shown to lower self-control and thereby limit

people’s abilities to inhibit aggressive responding following
provocation.
Gun Availability
How weapons enable violence?
There are two routes by which gun availability might affect
homicide rates.
1. Such weapon availability could affect the intention to
commit such acts, and;
2. It could affect the likelihood that an intention to kill is
actually successful, or results in homicide.

Contrary to the widespread belief that gun ownership

protects against homicide (e.g., is used effectively for self-
defense), the evidence favors the opposite conclusion—that
owning guns or living in a household with guns increases
the risk of homicide (and suicide).
Aggression in the Classroom and Workplace
What Is Bullying?
It is usually defined as a form of
interpersonal aggression in which one
individual—a bully—intentionally and
repeatedly aggresses against another,
and does so, in part, because the bully
has more power or status than the
person they seek to harm.
Cyberbullying: Electronic Means of Harm Doing
Cyberbullying is often defined as the use of
information and communication technologies
such as e-mail, cell phones, instant messaging,
and social media as means of engaging in
deliberate, repeated, and hostile behavior that is
intended to harm others.
Bullies often believe that they are anonymous,
and their power often derives from the fact that
they are more sophisticated with respect to
technology and its uses.
Can Bullying Be Reduced?
To effectively reduce bullying, programs should incorporate
these core features:
• Supervise children's behavior in playgrounds, classrooms, and
school settings.
• Train teachers to recognize and address bullying through
consistent disciplinary practices.
• Involve parents with meetings and information on the harmful
effects of bullying.
• Engage bystanders to report bullying and discourage approval
of the bully's actions.
• Implement multicomponent models for school-wide bullying
prevention, including counseling for bullies and victims.
• Tailor programs to address children's reactions to prevention
 Workplace Aggression

Workplace aggression can manifest in

various ways, from overt verbal insults to
subtle actions such as blocking promotions
or sabotaging projects.
Research indicates that most workplace aggression
takes less dramatic forms, such as:
• Spreading negative rumors.
• Sabotaging a colleague’s projects.
• Withholding necessary resources.
• Destroying personal property.
Common reasons for workplace aggression include:
• Perceived unfair treatment.
• Feelings of humiliation by supervisors.
• A belief that others have received unearned
benefits.
Workplace aggressors are often willing to wait a
long time to gain their revenge. In sum,
aggression does occur frequently at work, and
sometimes it does indeed take the extreme form
of violent actions. But in most instances, it occurs
in more subtle and indirect ways—which can still
be extremely harmful to their intended victims.
10.4: THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
AGGRESSION: SOME USEFUL TECHNIQUES
 10.4.1: Punishment: Revenge or
Deterrence?
• punishment—delivery of aversive consequences—is a
major technique for reducing aggression

First, there is a widespread belief that individuals who

engage in inappropriate acts of aggression deserve to be
punished. They have inflicted harm on others—and on
society in general—and should suffer in order to make
amends for this harm. This perspective suggests that the
amount of punishment people ought to receive should be
matched to the magnitude of harm they have caused
The second reason for punishing people who
commit aggressive actions is to deter them (or
others) from engaging in such behavior in the
future. This basis for punishment implies that ease
of detection of the crime should be given careful
attention; if aggressive actions are hard to detect
(e.g., they involve hidden or covert forms of
harming others), they should be strongly punished
because only strong punishment will deter people
from engaging in actions they believe they can “get
Which of these two perspectives is most important
in determining the magnitude of punishment people
feel is justified for specific aggressive acts or other
offenses?
Another important question relating to
punishment concerns its effectiveness:
Does it work? Can it reduce the tendency of
specific people to engage in later harmful
acts of aggression?
Here, existing evidence is relatively clear.
Punishment can reduce aggression, but only if it
meets four basic requirements:
(1)It must be prompt—it must follow aggressive
actions as quickly as possible; (2) it must be certain
to occur—the probability that it will follow
aggression must be very high;
(3) it must be strong— strong enough to be highly
unpleasant to potential recipients; and
(4) it must be perceived by recipients as justified or
deserved.
 10.4.2: Self-Regulation: Internal
Mechanisms for
Restraining Aggression
With the suggestion that one effective means of reducing aggression—potentially
a very effective one—is strengthening the internal mechanisms that usually
operate to control such behavior. We all possess these mechanisms, so the major
task is making them stronger and assuring that they are not overwhelmed by
other demands on our cognitive resources. How can internal restraints against
aggression be strengthened? There are several strategies for doing so. For
instance, exposure to other people who show restraint even in the face of strong
provocation (nonaggressive models; Baron & Richardson, 1994) can help, as
would providing training designed to strengthen internal restraints. In addition,
individuals can be taught to recognize when their cognitive resources are being
“stretched,” since those are the occasions on which inappropriate aggression is
most likely to occur.
 10.4.3: Catharsis: Does “Blowing
Off Steam” Really Help?
When I was a child, my grandmother used to greet temper tantrums by saying:
“That’s OK darling, let it out . . . don’t keep it bottled up inside—that’s bad for
you.” In other words, she was a true believer in the catharsis hypothesis—the
view that if individuals give vent to their anger and hostility in non-harmful ways,
their tendencies to engage in more dangerous types of aggression will be reduced
(Dollard et al., 1939).

Is this actually true?

Why does “letting it out” fail to reduce aggression? There are several reasons.
First, anger may actually be increased when individuals think about wrongs they
have suffered at the hands of others and imagine ways of harming these people.
Second, watching aggressive scenes, listening to songs with aggressive lyrics,
or
merely thinking about revenge and other aggressive actions may activate even
more aggressive thoughts and feelings. These, in turn, may color interpretations
of actual social interactions so that ambiguous actions by others are more likely
to be perceived as hostile ones. As we saw earlier, research on the effects of
play-
ing violent video games confirms this. As a result of increased hostile thoughts,
aggression is increased, not reduced, by activities that, according to the
catharsis
hypothesis should reduce it.
 10.4.4: Reducing Aggression
by Thinking Nonaggressive
Thoughts

Have you heard the expression “Count to 10

before losing your temper?” That describes a
simple cognitive technique for changing the
focus of your thoughts—and this momentary
shift may sometimes be enough to reduce
anger, just enough that it does not erupt into
overt aggression.
Several techniques for reducing aggression exist and
can be effective under various conditions. Punishment
can be effective in reducing aggression, but only when
it is delivered under certain conditions that are rarely
met. The catharsis hypothesis appears to be mainly
false. The likelihood of subsequent aggression is not
reduced by engaging in apparently “safe” forms of
aggression. Aggression can be restrained by internal
self-regulatory processes. If the cognitive resources
needed by these processes are depleted, however,
aggression may be especially likely to occur. Inducing
feelings or actions that are incompatible with anger
can sometimes reduce aggression
So overall, is aggression inevitable, because it
is part of our “human nature?”
Absolutely not. Various techniques for reducing
aggression exist, and if used appropriately, can
significantly reduce the likelihood that overt
acts of aggression will occur.
In short, there is clear evidence that we are not
the helpless pawns of our genes or situations
that condemn us to engage in ever more
dangerous acts of aggression