Chapter 5

Ecosystems and the Physical

Environment
Overview of Chapter 5

 Cycling of Materials within

Ecosystems
 Solar Radiation
 The Atmosphere
 The Global Ocean
 Weather and Climate
 Internal Planetary Processes
Cycling of Materials within
Ecosystems
 Cycling of Materials
 Matter moves between
ecosystems,
environments, and
organisms
 Biogeochemical cycling
involves
 Biological, geologic and
chemical interactions
 Five major cycles:
 Carbon, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Sulfur and
Water (hydrologic)
The Carbon Cycle https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/
image_maps/3-carbon-cycle
The Carbon (C) Cycle
 Global circulation of C between living and non-
living environment
 Major processes
 Photosynthesis
 CO2 dissolving into
ocean
 Respiration
 Soil, in particular
 Combustion of fossil
fuels
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Carbon-Silicate Cycle
 Over millions of years, C will interact with silicate
cycle
 CO2 with rainwater becomes H2CO3 and will
slowly weather silicate rich rocks
 Calcium minerals also released
 Ocean organisms use Ca2+ and Si4+ to form shells
 When die, shells become buried and over time
formed into limestone
 Geologic uplift or subduction

© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Human Effects on C Cycle
 CO2 was 0.029% of atmosphere (1700s)
 CO2 is 0.04% (2014)
 Expected 0.06% by 2100
 Higher CO2 creates
lots of feedbacks in
environment
 > CO2 dissolved in
ocean

© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
 N needed for proteins and nucleic acids
(DNA)
 Atmosphere is 78% N2, but most cannot use
this form
 Five steps
 Nitrogen fixation
 Nitrification
 Assimilation
 Ammonification
 Denitrification
 The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
1. Nitrogen fixation
2. Nitrification N2
5.
3. Assimilation 1.
4. Ammonification 3.
NH or NH +
5. Denitrification 3 4
Plants
4.
NO2-
3.
2.
NO3-
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
 Nitrogen fixation
 By bacteria (via nitrogenase enzyme), lightening,
volcanoes, industrial processes
 Nitrification
 Soil bacteria convert to NO2- then NO3-
 Assimilation
 Plants absorb NO3, NH3, or NH4+, moves into food web
 Ammonification
 Bacteria convert organic N into NH 3 or NH4+
 Denitrification
 Bacteria convert NO3- into N2
Human Affect on N Cycle
 Humans have doubled N fixation
 Haber-Bosch process sped fertilizer
production
 Great for efficiently growing vegetables
 N pollution in natural environments causes
eutrophication, over-fertilization of forests
 Combustion of fossil fuels
 Produces photochemical smog
 Increases production of acid rain
NITROGEN CYCLE
Why so important?

 “building block” of any living material

 Not directly assimilable ⇒ depend on bacteria
 Heavily used in agriculture

 Chemical pollution: run-off water contaminate table

water, shores, coral reef, …
 NH3, NO2- toxic compounds
 NO3- responsible for aquatic eutrophication
 N2O: 300 times more potent as CO2
Breaking
boundaries
Planetary boundaries: environmental limits
within which humanity can safely operate.

Crossing these boundaries could result in

irreversible and potentially catastrophic
changes to Earth's ecosystems.
Breaking
boundaries
 These boundaries are interconnected.
Exceeding one can have a domino effect on the others.
The Phosphorus Cycle
The Phosphorus (P) Cycle
 P cycles from land to ocean sediments
and back to land
 No gaseous phase, dust storms can
blow P forms into atmosphere
 Weathering of P-rich rock into
soils as PO43-
 Plants absorb (ex: ATP)
 Eventually carried to ocean
and sedimented
Human Affect on P Cycle
 P fertilizers
 One of primary limiting nutrients for plant growth
 Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) do not
remove
 Can cause eutrophication
 Ex: Lake Washington example (Chapter 1)
 2014 – 7 commercial WWTP recycling P and
other nutrients from treated sewage
 Business opportunities abound in environmental
fields
The Sulfur Cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle

 Over 71% of the earth’s surface is

covered by water:
 Oceans contain 97%.
 Polar ice caps and glaciers contain 2%.
 Freshwater in lakes, streams, and
ground water make up less than 1%.

23
The Hydrologic Cycle

 Distribution of water is not static:

 Heat
 Evaporation
 Clouds
 Precipitation
 Evaporation
 Consumed by organisms
 Groundwater
 Surface water

24
 25
From Ecology, concepts and methods
Human Effects on Water
Cycle
 Air pollution may decrease precipitation
 Pumping, diverting surface and
groundwater for irrigation
 Climate change – warming
temperatures are melting polar ice caps
 Sea level rise
 Greater frequency of storms predicted
Solar Radiation
 Solar Radiation
 Sun provides energy for life, powers
biogeochemical cycles, and determines climate

 Fuels = captured solar energy

 Albedo
 The reflectance of solar
energy off earth’s surface
 Dark colors = low albedo
 Forests and ocean
 Light colors = high albedo
 Ice caps
 Temperature Changes with
Latitude
 Solar energy does not hit earth
uniformly
 Due
Equator (a) to earth’s spherical shape and tilt
Closer to Poles
High From (a) to (c) (c)
concentration Low
In diagram
Little Reflection concentration
below
High Higher
Temperature Reflection Low
Temperature
 Temperature Changes with
Season
 Seasons
determined
by earth’s tilt
(23.5°)
 Causes each Solar Radiation
hemisphere to
tilt toward the
sun for half
the year

 Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the sun

from March 21- September 22 (warm
season)
The atmosphere
 The Atmosphere
 Content
 21% Oxygen
 78% Nitrogen
 1% Argon, Carbon dioxide, Neon
and Helium
 Greenhouse gases (CFCs, CO2,
CH4)

 Density decreases with

distance from earth
 Shields earth from high
energy radiation (UV, X-Rays, cosmic
rays)
The Atmosphere

Interaction Atmosphere & Solar energy

WEATHER & CLIMATE

Atmospheric Layers
 Troposphere (0–12km)
 Where weather occurs
 Temperature decreases
with altitude
 Stratosphere (12–50km)
 Temperature increases
with altitude- very stable
 Ozone layer absorbs UV
 Where jets fly
 Mesosphere (50–80km)
 Temperature decreases
with altitude
Atmospheric Layers
 Thermosphere (80–
500 km)
 Gases in thin air absorb
x-rays and short-wave
UV radiation = very hot
 Source of aurora
 Exosphere (500km
and up)
 Outermost layer
 Atmosphere continues
to thin until converges
with interplanetary
space
 Atmospheric Circulation
 Near Equator
 Warm air rises, cools
and splits to flow
towards the poles
 At ~30°N & 30°S air
sinks back to surface
 Air moves along surface
back towards equator
 This occurs at higher
latitudes as well
 Moves heat from
equator to the poles
 Surface Winds = horizontal movements
due to differences in atmospheric pressure and
earth rotation
High
 Large winds due in
part to pressures Low
caused by global
circulation of air High
 Left side of diagram
Low
 Winds blow from High
high to low
pressure Low
 Right side of diagram
High
Coriolis Effect

 Earth’s rotation influences direction of

wind
 Earth rotates from West to East
 Deflects wind from straight-line path
 Coriolis Effect
 Influence of the earth’s rotation on movement
of air and fluids
 Turns them Right in the Northern Hemisphere
 Turns them Left in the Southern Hemisphere
Coriolis Effect
The Global Ocean
Patterns of Ocean
Circulation
 Prevailing winds produce ocean
currents and generate gyres
 Example: the North Atlantic Ocean
 Trade winds blow west
 Westerlies blow east
 Creates a clockwise gyre in the North
Atlantic
 Circular pattern influenced by Coriolis
effect
Patterns of Ocean
Circulation

Westerlies

Trade winds

Ventusky.com
 Position of Landmasses

Large landmasses
in the Northern
Hemisphere help
to dictate ocean
currents and flow

Very little land in

the Southern
Hemisphere
Vertical Mixing of Ocean

Ocean Conveyor
Belt
Vertical Mixing of Ocean

 Ocean Conveyor Belt

Affects regional and possibly global

climate
Has shifted 11-12
kya
 Climate change
could result in
mini ice age?
 Ocean Interaction with
Atmosphere- ENSO
 El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO)
 Periodic large scale
warming of surface
waters of tropical E.
Pacific Ocean
 Every ~2-7 years
 Prevents upwelling
(pictured right) of
nutrient-rich waters
off South America
Normal Conditions
 Westward blowing tradewinds keep
warmest water in western Pacific
 ENSO Conditions
 Trade winds weaken and warm water
expands eastward to South America
 Big effect on fishing industry off South
America
 Floods in Peru
 May flood west coast of U.S.
 Australia and Indonesia have droughts
 La Nina
 Water in E. Pacific cools, west trade
winds strengthen
ENSO Climate Patterns
Weather and
Climate
 Weather and Climate
 Weather: The conditions in the
atmosphere at a given place and time
 Temperature, precipitation, cloudiness,
etc.

 Climate: The average weather

conditions that occur in a place over a
period of years
 2 most important factors:

temperature and
precipitation
Climate zones (revise in
50yrs?)
 Rain Shadows
 Mountains force humid air to rise
 Air cools with altitude, clouds form, and
precipitation occurs (windward side)
 Dry air mass moves leeward side of
mountain
 Rain Shadows
 True-color satellite image of Oregon
shows the rain shadow effect
 Tornadoes
 Powerful funnel of air associated
with a severe thunderstorm
 Formation
 Strong updraft of spinning air forms
as mass of cool dry air collides with
warm humid air
 Spinning funnel becomes tornado
when it descends from cloud
 Wind velocity = up to 480 km/h
 Width ranges from 1 m to 3.2 km
 U.S. has more tornadoes than
anywhere else
Tropical Cyclone
 Giant rotating tropical storms
 Wind > 119 km/h, many > 250
km/h
 Formation
 Strong winds pick up moisture over
warm surface waters and starts to
spin due to Earth’s rotation
 Spin causes upward spiral of clouds
 Many names:
 Hurricane (Atlantic), typhoon (Pacific),
cyclone (Indian Ocean)
Tropical Cyclones
 Frequency of hurricanes varies annually
 2005 most active on record (Katrina)
 Factors that influence formation include
 Precipitation in Africa
 Water temperatures in eastern Pacific
 Wetter rainy season in Sahel
 Dissipation of ENSO
Internal Planetary
Processes
 Internal Planetary Processes
 Layers of the earth

 Lithosphere
 Outermost rigid rock
layer composed of plates
 Oceanic crust 10 km
thick
 Continental crust 30-70
km thick

 Asthenosphere
 Lower mantle comprised
of hot soft rock (magma)
https://media.giphy.com/media/
kQPS6ASP23cvC/giphy.gif
Internal Planetary Processes
 Plate Tectonics- study of the
processes by which the lithospheric
plates move over the asthenosphere

 Plate Boundary - where 2 plates

meet
 Divergent - Two plates move apart
 Convergent - Two plates collide
 Transform - Plates move horizontally,
opposite but in parallel
Plates and Plate Boundaries
Types of Plate Motion
A - Divergent Plates

 Spreading boundary

 Ex:
 Mid-Atlantic ridge
 Rift Valley of Eastern Africa

 Volcanoes, earthquakes
Heezen and Tharp
 ICELAND MID-
ATLANTIC RIDGE
AFRICA RIFT
VALLEY
= an ocean in
formation
B - Convergent Plates

 Response to plate collision depend

on the type of crust involved

 3 combinations:
1 - Oceanic crust vs.
oceanic crust:  Subduction of one plate
 Formation of an island
arc
 Volcanoes, earthquakes

Ex: Japanese Islands

2 - Oceanic crust vs. continental crust:
 Formation of mountain
ranges
 Volcanoes, earthquakes

Ex: Andes Mountains, Taiwa

3 - Continental crust vs. continental
crust:  Overriding of one
plate
 formation of
mountain ranges
 Earthquakes
 Ex: Himalayas
C - Transform Boundaries
 “side-slip boundary”
 create fault zones
 earthquakes
 Ex: San Andreas
 Earthquakes
 Caused by the release of accumulated
energy as rocks in the lithosphere
suddenly shift or break
 Occur along faults
 Energy released as seismic wave
 Richter scale measures
magnitude
 Each unit 30x larger
 Cannot feel magnitude 2
 Landslides and
tsunamis are side
effects
Tsunami
 Giant undersea wave caused by an
earthquake, volcanic eruption or
landslide
 Travel > 800 km/h
 Tsunami wave may be 1 m deep in
ocean
 Becomes 30.5 m high on shore
 Magnitude 9.3 earthquake in Indian
Ocean
 Triggered tsunami that killed over 230,000
people in South Asia and Africa
ENVIRONEWS
 Two coastal Sri Lankan villages
 One with extensive mangrove forest
 Other deforested
 Often to build tourist resorts or for aquaculture
 Village with intact mangrove forest
recorded 3 deaths
 Village which as cut down mangroves
had ~6,000 deaths
 Mangroves can buffer storm surges
Volcanoes
 Magma pushes through plate reaching
surface becoming lava
 Volcanoes occur at
 Subduction zones (Indonesia)
 Spreading plates (Atlantic rift)
 Above hot spots (Hawaii)
 Rising plume of magma that flowed from rocky mantle to opening in
crust
 “Ring of Fire” in Pacific Basin
 Mt. Pinatubo (1991) ash cloud 30mi upward
 Volcanoes

 When one plate slides under or away

from an adjacent plate, magma may
rise to the surface forming a volcano

 Volcanoes occurs at:

Subduction zones (Indonesia)

Spreading centers (Iceland)
Above hot spots (Hawaii)
 Subduction
zone

Semeru and Mount Bromo (Java,

Indonesia)
 HOT
SPOT

Hawaii