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OSUN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

2023/2024 HARMATTAN SEMESTER

COURSE CODE: PHY 101 COURSE: GENERAL PHYSICS 1 UNIT: 3

LECTURERS: DR. J.T. ADELEKE

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Course Contents
• Conservation principles in physics, conservative forces,
• Conservation of linear momentum
• Kinetic energy and work, Potential energy,
• System of Particles, Centre of mass.
• Rotational motion. Torque,
• Vector product, moment,
• Rotation of Coordinate axes and angular momentum,
• Polar coordinates,
• Conservation of angular momentum,
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Further reading/References

• College Physics, 7th Edition - Serway, Raymond A.;

Faughn, Jerry S.; Vuille, Chris; Bennett, Charles A.
• Fundamentals of Physics, Tenth Edition - David Halliday,
Robert Resnick
-https://elearn.daffodilvarsity.edu.bd/pluginfile.php/987150/m
od_label/intro/fundamentals-of-physics-textbook.pdf
 Conservation principles in physics - Energy
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• In general, a conservation law is a statement that a certain quantity does not change
over time. principle that states that a certain physical property (i.e., a measurable
quantity) does not change in the course of time within an isolated physical system.

• The principle governs energy, momentum, angular momentum, mass, and electric
charge. In particle physics, other conservation laws apply to properties of subatomic
particles that are invariant during interactions.

• Conservation of energy implies that energy can be neither created nor destroyed,
although it can be changed from one form (mechanical, kinetic, chemical, etc.) into
another. For example, a falling body has a constant amount of energy, but the form of
the energy changes from potential to kinetic.
• when a system is isolated from its surroundings, the energy of the system is always
conserved
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Conservation principles - Mass
Law of Conservation of Mass
• This law states that mass can neither be destroyed nor be created in a chemical
reaction. i.e., processes that change the physical or chemical properties of substances
within an isolated system (such as conversion of a liquid to a gas) leave the total mass
unchanged

• Atoms rearrange themselves in different fashions among different molecules, in a

chemical reaction, hence the mass remains constant.

• Since the mass remains constant, the total reactant mass and the total product mass
remain the same. Chemical reactions can be both exothermic and endothermic.

• Both the laws of conservation of mass and conservation of energy can be combined
into one law, the conservation of mass-energy.
3080 Conservation principles - linear momentum
• Conservation of linear momentum expresses the fact that a
body or system of bodies in motion retains its total momentum,
the product of mass and velocity, unless an external force is
applied to it.

• In an isolated system (such as the universe), there are no

external forces, so momentum is always conserved. Because
momentum is conserved, its components in any direction will
also be conserved.

• Applications are in the solution of collision problems.

• The operation of rockets exemplifies the conservation of

momentum: the increased forward momentum of the rocket is
3080 Conservation principles - angular momentum
• Conservation of angular momentum of rotating bodies
is analogous to the conservation of linear momentum.

• Angular momentum is a vector quantity whose

conservation expresses the law that a body or system
that is rotating continues to rotate at the same rate
unless a twisting force, called a torque, is applied to
it.

• The angular momentum of each bit of matter consists of

the product of its mass, its distance from the axis of
rotation, and the component of its velocity perpendicular
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Conservation principles - charge

• Conservation of charge states that the total

amount of electric charge in a system does not
change with time.

• At a subatomic level, charged particles can be

created, but always in pairs with equal positive
and negative charge so that the total amount of
charge always remains constant.

• Other conservation laws apply to certain properties of nuclear

particles, such as baryon number, lepton number, and
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Conservation principles – Derivation
Mechanical Energy = Potential energy + kinetic energy
Potential energy is given by U = mgh,
Kinetic energy is given by K =1/2 mv2,
Consider a freely falling body,
The force exerted on the body is F= mg
Now, if the body falling is from height H, the potential energy is U1= mgH
potential energy at time t and height h is, U2 = mgh
change in potential energy (△U)= U1-U2
F= ma and a (acceleration due to gravity) = v *dv/dx
F = m.v dv/dx
Now on integration on both sides,
∫F.dx=∫v2v1m.vdv
Here, F= mg and v1 and v2 is 0 and v respectively,
∫mg.dx=∫v0m.vdv∫
mgx = 1/2mv2
 Conservative Force
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• A conservative force is a force done in

moving a particle from one point to another,
such that the force is independent of the
path taken by the particle. It depends only on
the initial and final position of the particle.
That is the work done is only dependent upon the
starting and ending positions, not the path taken to get
there.
• Examples are; the magnetic force, electrostatic force,
gravitational force, etc.
• When the work done by a force is dependent on the
Fig. 1: Gravitational
path taken, this force is a non-conservative force. Air force acting on a
resistance is an example of a non-conservative force. particle
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Properties of Conservative Forces

The following are the properties of a conservative force:

• When the force depends only on the initial and final position
irrespective of the path taken.
•In any closed path, the work done by a conservative force is
zero.
•The work done by a conservative is reversible.
Examples of Conservative Force: 1. Weight of an Object, 2. Stretching an Elastic Band, 3.
Poles of a Magnet, 4. Charged Comb, 5. Objects Falling on the Ground, 6. Spring Action
Properties of Non-Conservative Forces
The properties are given below:
•It is path-dependent therefore it also depends on the initial and final
position.
•In any closed path, the total work done by a non-conservative force is not
zero.
 Differences between Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

The work done by conservative force The work done by nonconservative force

The work done between two The work done between two
points by any conservative points by any conservative
force force
a) is reversible. a) is NOT reversible.
b) is independent of the path b) is DEPENDENT of the path
between the two points. between the two points.
c) is zero if the starting and c) is NOT zero if the starting
ending points are the and ending points are the
same. same.
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Solved Problems
Example 1

So the work done by the push

force is:

The friction force vector points in the opposite

direction compared to the motion of the chair,
so it does negative work on the chair:

Taking the sum of these, we get the total

work done by the non-conservative forces on
the chair:
 Solved Problems
Example 2: Consider an object of mass 2 kg moved by an external force 20 N in a surface having
coefficient of kinetic friction 0.9 to a distance 10 m. What is the work done by the external force and
kinetic friction ? Comment on the result. (Assume g = 10 ms-2)
Solution
m = 2 kg, d = 10 m, Fext = 20 N, μk = 0.9.
When an object is in motion on the horizontal surface, it experiences two forces.
a. External force, Fext = 20 N
b. Kinetic friction,
fk =μkmg = 0.9x(2)x10=18N.
The work done by the external force Wext = Fs = 20x10 =200J
The work done by the force of kinetic friction Wk =fkd = (-18) x10=-180J
Here the negative sign implies that the force of kinetic friction is opposite to the direction of displacement.
The total work done on the object
Wtotal = Wext + Wk = 200 J – 180 J = 20 J .
Since the friction is a non-conservative force, out of 200 J given by the external force, the 180 J is lost and it
can not be recovered.
 Solved Problems
Ex.3
Solved Problems
 Nonconservative
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Forces
 A nonconservative force is one for which work depends on the path taken.
 Friction is a good example of a nonconservative force.
 An important characteristic is that the work done by a nonconservative force adds
or removes mechanical energy from a system.
 Friction, for example, creates thermal energy that dissipates, removing energy
from the system.

The amount of the happy face erased depends on the path taken by the eraser between points A and
B, as does the work done against friction. Less work is done and less of the face is erased for the
path in (a) than for the path in (b). The force here is friction, and most of the work goes into thermal
energy that subsequently leaves the system (the happy face plus the eraser). The energy expended
cannot be fully recovered.
 How Nonconservative Forces Affect
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Mechanical Energy
 Mechanical energy may not be conserved when nonconservative forces act.
 For example, when a car is brought to a stop by friction on level ground, it loses
kinetic energy, which is dissipated as thermal energy, reducing its mechanical
energy.

Comparison of the effects of conservative and nonconservative forces on the mechanical energy of a
system. (a) A system with only conservative forces. When a rock is dropped onto a spring, its
mechanical energy remains constant (neglecting air resistance) because the force in the spring is
conservative. The spring can propel the rock back to its original height, where it once again has only
potential energy due to gravity. (b) A system with nonconservative forces. When the same rock is
dropped onto the ground, it is stopped by nonconservative forces that dissipate its mechanical energy
as thermal energy, sound, and surface distortion. The rock has lost mechanical energy.
 Linear Momentum
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and Force
Linear momentum is defined as the product of a system’s mass multiplied
by its velocity. In symbols, linear momentum is expressed as p = mv.
The SI unit for momentum is kg · m/s
Example: (a) Calculate the momentum of a 110-kg football player running at 8.00 m/s. (b) Compare the player’s
momentum with the momentum of a hardthrown 0.410-kg football that has a speed of 25.0 m/s.
Solution for (a)
To determine the momentum of the player, substitute the known values for the player’s mass and speed into
the equation. p = mv
pplayer = (110 kg)(8.00 m/s) = 880 kg ·m/s
Solution for (b)
To determine the momentum of the ball, substitute the known values for the ball’s mass and speed into the
equation. p = mv
pball = (0.410 kg)(25.0 m/s) = 10.3 kg ·m/s
Discussion
Although the ball has greater velocity, the player has a much greater mass. Thus the momentum of the player is
much greater than the momentum of the football, as you might guess. As a result, the player’s motion is only
slightly affected if he catches the ball. We shall quantify what happens in such collisions in terms of momentum
in later sections.
 Momentum and Newton’s Second Law
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Newton stated his second law of motion in terms of momentum: The net external force equals the
change in momentum of a system divided by the time over which it changes. Using symbols, this law is
Fnet = Δp/Δt ,
where Fnet is the net external force, Δp is the change in momentum, and Δt is the change in time.

Linear Momentum and Force

Change in momentum Δp is given by Δp = Δ(mv).
If the mass of the system is constant, then Δ(mv) = mΔv.
So that for constant mass, Newton’s second law of motion becomes Fnet = Δp/Δt =
mΔv/Δt .
Because Δv/Δt = a , :. Fnet=ma
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WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1: During the in the US Open at USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center on September 8, 2022, Ons
Jabeur of Tunisia hit the fastest recorded serve in a premier women’s match, reaching a speed of 58 m/s (209 km/h).
What is the average force exerted on the 0.057-kg tennis ball by Ons Jabeur’s racquet, assuming that the ball’s speed
just after impact is 58 m/s, that the initial horizontal component of the velocity before impact is negligible, and that
the ball remained in contact with the racquet for 5.0 ms (milliseconds)?

Solution
When mass is constant, the change in momentum is given by Δp = mΔv = m(vf − vi).
To determine the change in momentum, substitute the values for the initial and final velocities into the
equation, Δp = m(vf – vi)
= (0.057 kg)(58 m/s – 0 m/s)
= 3.306 kg · m/s ≈ 3.3 kg · m/s
Fnet = Δp/Δt
Now the magnitude of the net external force can determined by using :
Fnet = Δp/Δt = 3.306 (kg⋅m/s)/5.0×10−3 s
= 661 N ≈ 660 N
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Conservation of Momentum
Consider what happens if the masses of two colliding objects are more similar than the masses of
a football player and Earth—for example, one car bumping into another

A car of mass m1 moving with a velocity of v1 bumps into another car of mass m2 and velocity v2 that it is following. As a
result, the first car slows down to a velocity of v′1 and the second speeds up to a velocity of v ′2 . The momentum of each car
is changed, but the total momentum ptot of the two cars is the same before and after the collision (if you assume friction is
negligible).
 Change in Momentum
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Δp1 = F1Δt,
Δp2 = F2Δt
where F2 is the force on car 2 due to car 1, and we assume the duration of the collision Δt is the same
for both cars.
We know from Newton’s third law that F2 = – F1 ,
and so Δp2 = −F1Δt = −Δp1
Thus, the changes in momentum are equal and opposite, and Δp1 + Δp2 = 0.
Because the changes in momentum add to zero, the total momentum of the two-car system is
constant. That is,
p1 + p2 = constant,
p1 + p2 = p′1 + p′2,

where p′1 and p′2 are the momenta of cars 1 and 2 after the collision.
In equation form, the conservation of momentum principle for an isolated system is written
ptot = constant,
Or ptot = p′tot,
where ptot is the total momentum and p′tot is the total momentum some time later. An
isolated system is defined to be one for which the net external force is zero Fnet = 0.
 Elastic Collision
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An elastic collision is one that conserves internal kinetic energy.

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
When a collision occurs in an isolated system, the total momentum of the system doesn’t
change with the passage of time. Instead, it remains constant both in magnitude and in
direction. The momenta of the individual objects in the system may change, but the vector sum
of all the momenta will not change. The total momentum, therefore, is said to be conserved.

When no net external force acts on a system, the total momentum of the system remains
constant in time.
 WORKED EXAMPLE
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A 0.150-kg baseball, thrown with a speed of
40.0 m/s, is hit straight back at the pitcher
with a speed of 50.0 m/s.
(a) What is the impulse delivered by the bat
to the baseball?
(b)(b) Find the magnitude of the average
force exerted by the bat on the ball if
the two are in contact for 2.00 103 s.
Solution (a) Find the impulse delivered to the
car. Calculate the initial and final momenta of
(b) Find the average force exerted on the car.
the car:
Apply Equation 6.6, the impulse–momentum
theorem:

The impulse is just the difference

between the final and initial
momenta:
 CLASS WORK
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1. An archer stands at rest on frictionless ice

and fires a 0.500-kg arrow horizontally at
50.0 m/s.
(See Fig.6) The combined mass of the archer
and bow is 60.0 kg. With what velocity does (Fig.6)
the archer move across the ice after firing
the arrow?
2. A 70.0-kg man and a 55.0-kg woman on ice
skates stand facing each other. If the woman
pushes the man backwards so that his final
speed is 1.50 m/s, at what speed does she
recoil?
3. A car and a large truck traveling at the same
speed collide head-on and stick together. Which
vehicle experiences the larger change in the
magnitude of its momentum? (a) the car (b) the FIG. 7 (a) Before and (b) after a
truck (c) the change in the magnitude of perfectly inelastic head-on collision
momentum is the same for both (d) impossible to between two objects.
determine