19EEE401 Power System

Protection and Switchgear

 Instrument Transformers for protection
• Current Transformer:
• It steps down the current to levels that it can be handled by the
relay current coil
• Standard secondary current ratings are 5A & 1A
• It isolates the relay circuitry from the high voltage of the EHV
system.
• Ideally the CT should faithfully transform the current without
any errors. But there can be ratio error and phase angle error.
• The difference between a metering CT and protection CT is
that, the metering CT is so designed that in case of faults it will
saturate and thus save the instrument connected to its secondary
from damage due to excessive current.
• A protective CT is designed to faithfully reproduce the largest
fault current.
 Instrument Transformers for protection
• Current Transformer:
 Instrument Transformers for protection
• Potential Transformer:
• The PT steps down the HV of the line to a level safe enough for
the pressure coil of relay and personnel to handle.
• Standard secondary voltage on line to line is 110V.
• PT primary is connected in parallel at the point where
measurement is desired.
• It suffers from ratio and phase angle errors.
 Basic Relay Terminology
• Protective relay: A protective relay is an automatic device
which detects an abnormal condition in an electrical circuit and
causes a circuit breaker to isolate the faulty element of the
system.
• Operating force or torque: A force or torque which tends to
close the contacts of the relay.
• Restraining force or torque: A force or torque which opposes the
operating force/ torque.
• Actuating quantity: An electrical quantity (current, voltage, etc)
to which relay responds.
• Pick-up (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity
(current, voltage, etc.) above which the relay operates.
 Basic Relay Terminology
• Operating time: It is the time which elapses from the instant at
which the actuating quantity exceeds the relays pick-up value
to the instant at which the relay closes its contacts.
• Reset time: It is the time which elapses from the moment the
actuating quantity falls below its reset value to the instant
when the relay comes back to its normal (initial) position.
• Directional or reverse power relay: A directional relay is able to
detect whether the point of fault lies in the forward or reverse
direction with respect to the relay location. It is able to sense
the direction of power flow, i.e. whether the power is flowing in
the normal direction or the reverse direction.
 Classification of Protective Schemes
• Overcurrent Protection:
• Used for the protection of distribution lines, large motors, equipment, etc.
• It includes one or more overcurrent relays. An overcurrent relay operates when
the current exceeds its pick-up value.
• Distance Protection
• Distance protection is used for the protection of transmission or sub-
transmission lines; usually 33 kV, 66 kV and l32 kV lines.
• A distance relay measures the distance between the relay location and
the point of fault in terms of impedance, reactance, etc.
• The relay operates if the point of fault lies within the protected section
of the line.
• Example: impedance, reactance and mho type.
• An impedance relay measure the line impedance between the fault
point and relay location; a reactance relay measures reactance, and a
mho relay measures a component of admittance.
 Classification of Protective Schemes
• Carrier-current Protection:
• used for the protection of EHV and UHV lines, generally 132
kV and above.
• A carrier signal is generated for the purpose.
• A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a
transmission line to be protected.
• Information regarding the direction of the fault current is
transmitted from one end of the line section to the other.
• relays placed at each end trip if the fault lies within their
protected section.
 Classification of Protective Schemes
• Differential Protection
• used for the protection of generators, transformers, motors of
very large size, bus zones, etc.
• CTs are placed on both sides of each winding of a machine.
• The outputs of their secondary's are applied to the relay coils.
• The relay compares the current entering a machine winding and
leaving the same.
• Under normal conditions or during any external fault, the
current entering the winding is equal to the current leaving the
winding.
• In the case of an internal fault on the winding, these are not
equal. This difference in the current actuates the relay.
• Thus, the relay operates for internal faults and remains
inoperative under normal conditions or during external faults.
Classification of Protective Schemes
 Automatic Reclosing
• 90% of faults on overhead lines are of transient nature.
• Transient faults are caused by lightning or external bodies
falling on the lines. Such faults are always associated with arcs.
• If the line is disconnected from the system for a short time, the
arc is extinguished and the fault disappears. Immediately after
this, the circuit breaker can be reclosed automatically to restore
the supply.
• Most faults on EHV lines are caused by lightning. Flashover
across insulators takes place due to over voltages caused by
lightning and exists for a short time. An instantaneous reclosure
is used. For EHV lines, one reclosure in 12 cycles is
recommended. A fast reclosure is desired from stability point of
view.
 Automatic Reclosing
• On lines up 33 kV, most faults are caused by external objects
such as tree branches, etc. falling on the overhead lines.
• The external objects may not be burnt clear at the first reclosure
and may require additional reclosures.
• Usually three reclosures at 15-120 seconds’ intervals are made
to clear the fault.
• If the fault is not cleared after 3 reclosures, it indicates that the
fault is of permanent nature.
• Automatic reclosure are not used on cables as the breakdown of
insulation in cables causes a permanent fault
 Classification of Protective Relays
Based on technology
• Electromechanical relays:
• An electrical relay in which the desired response is developed by the
relative movement of mechanical elements under the action of a
current in the input circuit.
• Such relay operates by physical movement of mechanical parts
resulting from electromagnetic or electro thermic forces created by
the input quantities.
• Static relays:
• These are solid state relays and employ semiconductor diodes,
transistors, thyristors, logic gates, ICs, etc.
• The measuring circuit is a static circuit and there are no moving parts.
• There is a comparator circuit in the relay, which compares two or
more currents or voltages and gives an output which is applied to a
thyristor circuit to close the relay contact.
Classification of Protective Relays
Based on technology

• Digital relays or Numerical relays:

• Measured ac quantities are sequentially sampled and
converted into numerical (digital) data form.
• A microprocessor or a microcontroller processes the data
numerically (i.e., performs mathematical and/or logical
operations on the data) using an algorithm to calculate the
fault discriminants and make trip decisions.
Overcurrent Protection
• Shunt fault results in sudden build up of current.
• Non-directional OC protection: Protection which depends only
on magnitude of current.
• To discriminate the fault in front of CB and behind the CB,
direction of current flow to be sensed. Thus magnitude of
current and its phase w.r.to the voltage at the relay location is
considered. Which is directional over current protection.
Overcurrent Protection
Fuses
• Fuse allows the normal
current to flow but melts itself
out when the current exceeds
a certain magnitude for a
certain amount of time, thus
breaking the circuit.
Time-current characteristic of a fuse
• It combines the functions of
sensing, comparing and
interrupting the current into
one.
• High Rupturing Capacity
(HRC) fuse interrupts the
current even before it attains
its peak value.
Overcurrent Protection
Over current relay
• A protective relay which
operates when the load current
exceeds a preset value, is called
an overcurrent relay.
• The value of the preset current
above which the relay operates
is known as its pick-up value.
• Current setting decides
operating time of the relay, plug
setting decides the current
required for the relay to pick up.
 Time-Current Characteristics

• Instantaneous relay: operates within

20 to 60 ms
• Inverse time relay: A relay in which
the operating time is inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the
operating current.
• Definite time relay: A relay in which
the operating time is independent of
the magnitude of the actuating current.
• Inverse Definite Minimum Time
(IDMT) Relay: A relay which gives
an inverse time characteristic at lower
values of the operating current and
definite time characteristic at higher
values of the operating current.
 Time-Current Characteristics

• Inverse Definite Minimum

Time (IDMT) Relay:
• Pickup current: current above
which the relay should operate.
• Plug setting(%)/current
setting(A): rated relay current
5A, and plug setting 50%
means pick up value is 2.5A
(0.5*5=2.5A)
• Plug Setting multiplier (PSM):
 Time-Current Characteristics

• Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay:

pickup value=10A

• Time Multiplier Setting(TMS): The operating time of the relay can

be set at a desired value.
 Time-Current Characteristics-IDMT
• For any TMS, operating time of the relay at a given PSM
=TMS*(operating time of the relay at given PSM for at TMS=1)
• For example, at TMS=0.5,PSM=2, top=0.5*10=5s
• IDMT relay:
• Very IDMT relay:
• Extremely IDMT relay:
• In general ; where n varies from 1.02 to 2
• IDMT relays are best suited for the protection of distribution lines.
• VIDMT gives better selectivity than IDMT.
• VIDMT used when there is a substantial reduction of fault current as
the distance from the power source increases.
• EIDMT have better selectivity than VIDMT & IDMT
• EIDMT is used for protection of machines against overheating.
Alternators, power transformers, earthing transformers, expensive
cables, railway trolley wires etc.
 Substation Equipment
• Circuit breakers are the switching and current interrupting
devices. Comprises set of fixed and movable contacts. Contacts
are separated by means of operating mechanism.
• Isolators are disconnecting switches, used for disconnecting a
circuit under no current condition.
• An isolator can be opened after the CB operation.
• After opening the isolator, the earthing switch can be closed to
discharge the trapped electrical charges to ground.
• CTs and PTs for measurement, protection and control purpose.
• Lightning arresters divert the over voltages to earth and
protect the s/s equipment from over voltages.
Substation Equipment
Thank You