Analysing non-

fiction
 Non-fiction text types

Non-fiction texts come in many types, and

have many different purposes. They
surround us in everyday life but can also
come in more sophisticated forms.
A non-fiction text is based on facts. It is really
any text which isn’t fiction (a made-up story or
poetry). Non-fiction texts come in a huge variety
of types. You find them everywhere in life, from
the back of the cereal packet at breakfast, to a
text book at the library. They can range from a
newspaper article to a review of a new computer
game. They are written for many different
purposes, and are aimed at many different
people or audiences.
Non-fiction texts include:
 advertisements
 reviews
 letters
 diaries
 newspaper articles
 information leaflets
 magazine articles
 Literary non-fiction

Literary non-fiction is a type of writing which uses similar

techniques as fiction to create an interesting piece of writing about
real events. Techniques such as withholding information, vivid
imagery and rhetorical devices can all be used. These techniques
help to create non-fiction which is enjoyable and exciting to read.
Some travel writing, autobiographies, or essays that consider a
particular viewpoint are key examples of literary non-fiction. Their
main purpose is to entertain whilst they inform about factual events
or information.
Literary non-fiction texts include:
 feature articles
 essays
 travel writing
 accounts of famous events
 sketches (normally a fact file profile that gives key information
about a person, place or event)
 autobiographies (where you write about yourself) or biographies
(where someone else writes about you). These texts may be
written by sportspeople, politicians, celebrities as well as people
who aren’t well-known
 Biography

A biography is writing about someone’s life. If

someone is writing about their own life it
becomes an autobiography. Biography and
autobiography might focus on a specific part of
someone’s life and experiences.
A biography is usually written both to inform and to
entertain. This means it is a mix of factual information
and creative writing. Often biographies are of famous
people, e.g. singers, models or sports personalities.
However, sometimes biographies of ordinary people who
aren’t well known can be interesting because of an
extraordinary experience that they’ve had, such as
surviving against the odds or doing something heroic.
Pelé's autobiography tells the story of his life
and career as an international footballer
Example
This is the opening paragraph of Claire Tomalin’s biography of
Charles Dickens, the novelist. The young man she is describing is
Dickens, aged 37.
14 January 1840, London. An inquest is being held at
Marylebone Workhouse, a muddled complex of buildings spread
over a large area between the Marylebone Road and
Paddington Street. The Beadle, a parish officer responsible for
persuading householders to do their duty as jurors at
such inquests, has assembled twelve men. Most of them are
middle-aged local tradesmen, but one stands out among them
as different. He is young and slight, smartly dressed and good-
looking, neither tall nor short at five foot nine inches, with dark
hair falling in curls over his forehead and collar. He is a new
resident who has just moved into a fine airy house with a large
garden, close to Regent’s Park at York Gate: it is No. 1
Devonshire Terrace, from which the Beadle has made haste to
summon him to his duty.
Charles Dickens, Claire Tomalin
 Analysis

How does Tomalin, the writer of this extract, introduce us to Charles

Dickens?
 The extract begins by raising questions for the reader – why is
there an inquest? How will Dickens be involved?
 The focus then shifts to the jury where “one stands out”,
suggesting that he doesn’t fit in – and is more significant than the
others. The writer creates suspense, as we don’t know whether
this man is Dickens yet.
 Due to the close focus on this character, the reader may make
the connection to him being Charles Dickens.
 The writer lists details, eg “smartly dressed” and “fine airy
house”. The adjectives “smartly” and “fine” imply that he is
quite wealthy.
 Descriptive language, eg “good-looking” with “dark hair falling in
curls over his forehead” present Dickens in a romantic way, like
the main character in a story.
 Information leaflet

Information leaflets normally focus on a particular subject. In

leaflets it’s not just the content and language that are important,
but also the layout and organisation.
While it is unlikely that you will answer a question about a leaflet in
your exams, this example has been included because you should
revise using a wide range of text types.
Take notice of how non-fiction texts all around you achieve their
purpose and appeal to their audience!
Get baking
 Analysis

Key features of this leaflet include:

 The heading of the leaflet uses imperative language to give the
reader a direct command – “Get Baking!” The subheading “to
help you get baking” suggests that the intended audience are
people who are new to this activity.
 The opening ‘welcome’ message from celebrity chefs will appeal
to fans of The Great British Bake Off. It introduces the purpose of
the leaflet – to persuade readers to support the BBC Children In
Need charity through baking.
 Sub-headings guide the reader through each section – some
information is organised with numbers and bullet points to break
down instructions.
 The tone is reassuring to the reader if they are not necessarily an
expert “All the recipes in this guide give step-by-step advice to
help you bake beautifully”. The personal pronoun “you” is
direct and inviting.
 The language is enthusiastic - the rule of three highlights the
benefits of baking as “relaxing, rewarding and great fun”.
 Assertive language like “nothing beats the taste” and “it’s really
not difficult” makes the reader feel they should have a go.
 A range of adjectives – “perfect, tasty, crusty, hot and delicious”
– appeal to the senses, almost making the reader hungry as they
imagine eating the food!
 A fun tone is reinforced by alliteration – “crazy for cake”, “soft
spot for bread” and “passion for puddings” – which builds up to
the whole purpose of the text.
 letters

Letters are handwritten or printed on paper for many

purposes and audiences:
 they can be informal, eg to a friend or family member - to keep in
touch or say thank you
 they can be formal, such as a letter of complaint or a letter from
the bank explaining the features of your bank account
 they are structured to show that the text is directed at someone,
using a salutation ‘Dear NAME…’ and an appropriate ending
‘Yours sincerely…’
 Open Letter

An ‘open letter’ is a letter which is either

addressed to the public or to a specific person,
(like a politician), but is published in a public
forum such as a popular newspaper with a big
audience. An open letter is often used to protest
about something.
 Example

Schools might send letters home when teachers

want to praise their students in a more formal
way. This is a letter written by the Head of
Geography to a student’s parents.
19 July 2016
Dear Mr and Mrs Smith
Jonathan Smith – Form 10ABC
I am always pleased to hear about students who are committed to the study of
Geography. Miss Jones has brought Jonathan to my attention for the effort he has
shown over the course of this term.
Geography is a challenging subject, which requires students to work hard to increase
their knowledge and be able to apply new skills.
I would like to congratulate Jonathan for the level of attainment he has achieved due
to the level of application he has shown. I hope that he will continue to make good
progress in Geography as a result.
Yours sincerely
Mr L Mountain
Head of Geography
 Analysis

This letter:
 Has a conventional salutation to create a polite register.
 Opens with a topic sentence so that the purpose of the letter is clear.
 Uses a tone that is formal, eg “brought to my attention” – this shows
respect to the student’s achievements.
 Includes words used in schools, eg "attainment", "progress", "subject"
and "term" as the intended audience will be familiar with
these specialist terms.
 Uses adjectives to highlight the student’s success, eg “challenging”
and “hard” implies a lot of effort.
 Closes with the conventional sign off “Yours sincerely” to show that the
message is genuine and important to the sender. This maintains the
formal tone.
 Review

A review gives an opinion about anything from a restaurant to a

concert.
The most common types of review are film and book reviews, but
people also review music, television programmes, theatre
performances and computer games.
Critics often write reviews for a living. They are knowledgeable on
certain topics, eg films or music. We trust their judgement and may
decide to read a book or watch a film because they persuade us to
do so.
All reviews share a number of different purposes. For example, a film
review needs:
 to inform - the review needs to tell people who is in the film, who it
is by and where or when readers can see it
 to describe - the review should describe the story, characters and
some of the action - without spoiling the plot or giving too much away
 to entertain - to provide the reader with their opinion in a way that
readers will enjoy, eg with a lively or witty tone
 to analyse - a good review weighs up whether the film is good or
not, giving opinions backed up with reasons and evidence
 to advise - the review should recommend to the reader whether or
not they should go to see the film
 Audience

 The audience of a review varies - this depends on where it is

published.
 The audience might be specific or general. For example, a
specialist computer games magazine will assume their readers
have a major interest in gaming and an understanding of
specialist terminology, such as spawning and simulator.
However, a review of a game in a national newspaper, with a
much wider audience, would need to simplify the language or
explain the terms.
 Reviews of popular new books and films aim to reach nationwide
audiences - but a local newspaper will review a performance at
their own theatre, aimed at local readers.
 Example

This is a review of the film The Golden

Compass.
A review of a children’s film is probably aimed at
parents, who will want to know whether to take
their children to see it.
The Golden Compass
Reviewed by Stella Papamichael
Free will is the object of the game in The Golden Compass, a big budget exercise in orienteering
where witches and polar bears point the way to enlightenment. You'll have to look between the CG
seams to find the original intent of Philip Pullman's atheistic novel, but this isn't the overriding
problem. It's that writer/director Chris Weitz doesn't convey a strong enough sense of purpose.
Thank goodness for the star presence of Dakota Blue Richards. She is thoroughly engaging as Lyra, a
young girl singled out in prophecy as 'the one' to save all others from some awful yet indeterminate
fate. It all sounds a bit messianic really, except that organised religion, represented by The
Magisterium, is a force for evil. Nicole Kidman does the ominous eyebrow lifting as a guardian of the
establishment who kidnaps children to wrest them from their 'daemons' (the animal sidekicks who
embody their better judgment). Among the abductees is Lyra's best friend, and so begins the voyage
north to find him.
Many questions raised
Daniel Craig has little to do as Lyra's scientifically minded uncle except hint at potential sequels. The
draw is in a simple story of friendship and Lyra's journey of self-discovery. The line-up of curious
characters she meets along the way helps to lighten Pullman's otherwise dark material. Sam Elliot is
wryly amusing as a cowboy aeronaut and the spectacle of Lyra being carried across the arctic
wastelands on the back of a polar bear (voiced by Ian McKellen) will appeal to the child in everyone.
Towards the end, some impressively realised battle scenes up the excitement. Disappointingly
though, all this magic and mystery fails to lead to any grand unveiling. There are just too many
questions raised and not enough answered. Approach this not as a lesson in the facts of life, just a bit
of childish escapism.
The Golden Compass is out in the UK on 5 December.
 Analysis
How has the writer structured the text to interest the reader?
 The review opens with a focus on the fantasy characters and genre of the film,
engaging readers with the idea of the film pointing you “to enlightenment” – a
journey of discovery.
 The opening paragraph ends with a short statement summing up the critic’s
conclusion that it “doesn’t convey a strong enough sense of purpose”. This
raises the question - why not?
 The focus shifts to the actors and Richards’ “star presence” – this balances the
good and bad points. Finishing the paragraph with “the voyage north”
continues the sense of a journey.
 The subheading “Many Questions Raised” is repeated in the final paragraph
and highlights the critic’s conclusion that there are “not enough answered”.
 She balances this with positives – “will appeal to the child in everyone” and
“childish escapism” – leaving the reader to decide for themselves whether they
want to see it.
 The review concludes with the key dates. This informs the reader when they
can see it.
How does the writer use language to influence the reader?
 The critic begins with a pun on the film’s ‘compass’ title, describing
it as “a big budget exercise in orienteering” – implying that a lot of
money has been spent producing a simple “find your way” story.
 A disappointed tone states that you “have to look between the CG
seams” to find the “intent” of Pullman’s novel – as if the focus on
special effects means the message of the story has been lost.
 Positive language choices, eg “star presence” and “engaging” are
more upbeat as the review appreciates the acting.
 Humour is used to entertain the reader – “Kidman does the
ominous eyebrow lifting” – the caricature of the villain is amusing
rather than frightening. This is more appealing to children.
 The contrasting adverbs – “impressively realised battle scenes”
and “disappointingly…fails to lead to any grand unveiling” -
captures the feeling of anti-climax the writer experienced when
watching the film. A direct statement reinforces this – “too many
questions” and “not enough answered”.
 Describing the film as “childish escapism” suggests that it can
still be enjoyed if we don’t expect too much from it. “Escapism”
implies a light relief from reality - for both adults and children.
Newspaper articles
There are several different types of newspaper articles:
 News Reports - these are found at the front of a newspaper.
They inform readers about things that are happening in the world
or in the local area. They will be full of facts, like names, dates
and places, as well as points of view, eg “Local opinion is still
divided over plans to open a new shopping centre.” Reports tend
to have a more formal, neutral tone.
 Feature articles - these explore the issues raised by news
stories in more depth. For example, a report about young
children left home alone could inspire a feature article on the
difficulties of finding childcare providers in the local area. A
feature article tends to be more opinionated and less formal than
a report, often taking a personal point of view.
 Editorials, columns and opinion pieces - these are pieces by
'personality' writers, often celebrities in other fields. They might
be there to inform (because the writer's expert opinion is valued),
or they might be there to entertain (because the writer has a
comic or interesting way of describing everyday life). Columnists
develop a style of their own – for example, polemical or
sarcastic. They create this style through vocabulary choices
and rhetorical devices. They might use informal language to
convey their idiolect. This individual style appeals to their
audience.
 Tabloid and broadsheet
newspapers
The type of newspaper that publishes the article influences
how it is written:
 If it is in a tabloid it will have shorter sentences and paragraphs
and use more basic vocabulary – reports
are sensationalised using emotive language and they may
focus more on celebrities and gossip, eg The Sun and The Daily
Mirror.
 If it is in a broadsheet the sentences will be longer and more
complicated, and the vocabulary will be more advanced. The
tone is more formal and serious as they focus on important
national and international issues, eg The Times and The
Telegraph.
Some newspapers also have particular political points of view,
which might affect how they report events in the news.
Example

This is a news report from The Financial Times, which is a

broadsheet paper. Only part of the report is printed here. It is about
children in Singapore being the best in the world at maths
July 22, 2016
Why Singapore’s kids are so good at maths
The city-state regularly tops global league tables. What’s the secret of its achievement?
Sie Yu Chuah smiles when asked how his parents would react to a low test score. “My parents are not
that strict but they have high expectations of me,” he says. “I have to do well. Excel at my studies.
That’s what they expect from me.” The cheerful, slightly built 13-year-old is a pupil at Admiralty, a
government secondary school in the northern suburbs of Singapore that opened in 2002.
At meetings of the world’s education ministers, when it is Singapore’s turn to speak, “everyone
listens very closely”, says Andreas Schleicher, head of the OECD’s education assessment
programme.
But what is it about Singapore’s system that enables its children to outperform their international
peers? And how easy will it be for other countries to import its success?
A densely populated speck of land in Southeast Asia, Singapore is bordered by Malaysia to the north
and the leviathan archipelago of Indonesia to the south. The former British trading post gained self-
rule in 1959 and was briefly part of a Malaysian federation before becoming fully independent in
1965. A sense of being dwarfed by vast neighbours runs deep in the national psyche, inspiring both
fear and pride. In a speech to trade union activists on May Day last year, prime minister Lee Hsien
Loong told citizens: “To survive, you have to be exceptional.” The alternative, he warned, was being
“pushed around, shoved about, trampled upon; that’s the end of Singapore and the end of us”.
The Financial Times, Jeevan Vasagar
 Analysis
This article:
 uses the headline to make a direct statement, “Why Singapore’s
kids are so good at maths” – the purpose of the report is to
explain why
 the language “global” league tables highlights the international
success – followed by a rhetorical question, “What’s the secret
of its achievement?” to interest the reader
 the conversational tone avoids being too formal, eg “kids” and
“what’s the secret” – the audience might be parents as well as
educational experts
 more rhetorical questions prepare the reader for
“answers” provided by the report
 a metaphor “speck of land” makes Singapore sound
tiny – the reader is even more amazed at its huge
success – and its tiny size is reinforced by the
description that it is “dwarfed” by its neighbours
 imperative language from its Prime Minister explains
the efforts behind the brilliant maths results, “You
have to be exceptional”
 the extract ends with a rule of three,
“pushed around, shoved about, trampled upon” – the
aggressive verbs imply the struggle Singapore
students face if they do not achieve highly at school
 Diaries and blogs
 A diary is a personal record of events, thoughts and feelings –
usually arranged in chronological order. They can be
handwritten and private – or might be uploaded to the internet as
a ‘blog’. The origin of the word ‘blog’ is as an abbreviation for
‘web-log’ – that is, an online diary of sorts.
 Blogs are written by many people all over the world, for lots of
different purposes. They are often informative and interactive,
enabling readers to post their thoughts or ask questions. Some
blogs focus on topics of interest, such as health, music or art.
‘How to’ tutorials are popular too, eg for styling hair or crafts.
These blogs appeal to followers with similar interests, creating a
very specific audience base.
Diaries and blogs:
 Are usually quite personal – written in the first person from the
writer’s point of view.
 The language can be more creative (literary non-fiction) in a blog.
This could be to entertain or to help the reader imagine events and
feelings.
 The tone can be formal or informal depending on the intended
purpose and audience, eg a travel blog might be chatty to encourage
the reader to share fun experiences. It could also be serious if
recounting travels through places where there is extreme poverty.
 Tenses can vary – diaries and blogs tend to be past tense but can use
present tense to bring an event to life for the reader.
Blogs can also be used by organisations to communicate informally
with their audience. Because they are online, they can be regular,
and respond to events quickly.
It is unlikely that you will answer a question about a blog in your
exams, but diary extracts can be either 19th century or modern.
Example
This is part of a post from a blog about one girl’s interest in fashion.
Since she was just 13, Tavi Gevinson has attracted international
attention from the fashion industry, after the New York Times picked
up on her fashion blog Style Rookie. She is now 20 and is the editor
for online magazine Rookie alongside her blog.
STYLE ROOKIE
APRIL 21, 2016
Today I am 20. The Crucible, in which I play Mary Warren, opened at the Walter Kerr Theatre three
weeks ago, March 31st—also the eight-year anniversary of this blog. I have a lot of trouble
comprehending that writing Style Rookie led to writing for other places, then starting Rookie, then
being able to audition for plays that I love and to be inside of them for long periods of time, which is
an inexplicably wonderful way to live a life. But I am really really really insanely thankful for all of it,
and many of you have followed for a LONG time, and that means a lot. Right now, I'm very slowly
writing something that I hope will effectively articulate the strangeness of the way these all overlap
—the fictions we get to try on via diary/blog-keeping, and acting, and personal style. But that's a
longterm hermit project. I just wanted to mention it because in my attempt to briefly list recent stuff
I've been up to, I may sound callous, but: None of this goes unexamined or unappreciated.
Since my last update:
I went on tour for Rookie Yearbook Four and got to meet Rookies across the U.S. It's always surreal
and the very best heart-nutrition to see long-time readers and meet new ones!
Recent Editor's Letters for Rookie about stuff like: Glory, Assembly, Potential, Truth or Dare, and Cult
of Personality. In my letter for the theme On Display, I also wrote about David Bowie.
I am also hanging out with the coolest/cutest girls in the world in the video for Carly Rae Jepsen's
song "Boy Problems," which Petra Collins, Rookie photographer and personal partner-in-crime,
directed.
Style Rookie, Tavi Gevinson
 Analysis
 The blog's title “Style Rookie” is informal, appealing to a younger
audience who might see themselves as “rookies” (beginners) too.
 It opens in the present tense “Today I am 20” – this signals a
significant date on which she has chosen to stop and think about the
end of her teenage years.
 The first person creates a personal and conversational feel – like Tavi
is speaking directly to the reader.
 Listing the events “then…then” quickens the pace to convey how
quickly everything seems to have happened to her.
 Alliteration reinforces the positive statement “wonderful way to live
a life”.
 Unusual metaphors eg, “hermit project” and “heart-nutrition”
shape a distinct idiolect – giving the reader a sense of Tavi’s
originality and ways of speaking.
 A young, fun tone is created with repetition “I am really really
really insanely grateful”. The word “insanely” is slang for
‘very’ and implies she cannot control her happiness.
 Further informal words and phrases, eg “stuff”, “hanging out”
and “coolest” continue the youthful register.
 Essay

Essays are not only written by students. People who are

considered experts in a particular topic often write essays
to show a new viewpoint on something. For example,
authors like Charles Dickens and George Orwell wrote
essays to express their ideas about topics, such as politics
and poverty. The essay is a form of literary non-fiction in
which a writer expresses an opinion on something, or
makes an argument, in a creative form.
Essays:
 have a clear structure that introduces their idea, develops their
viewpoint using different points to support them, and concludes with
a summary of the arguments
 can have a formal tone and serious purpose, eg in The Ugly Tourist,
Jamaica Kincaid criticises the way that tourism ignores the poverty
and hardships found in some tourist locations
 can be more personal, eg in My Misspent Youth, Meghan Daum
shares her dreams and then the difficult realities of trying to be a
successful writer in New York
Example
 This extract is the beginning of an essay by George Orwell, the
novelist, who was also a famous essay writer. This essay is
called Politics and the English Language. It was published in
1946, in a literary magazine. It criticises the ugliness of written
English in the ‘modern’ age.
Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English
language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious
action do anything about it. Our civilization is decadent and our language – so the
argument runs – must inevitably share in the general collapse. It follows that any
struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring
candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-
conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we
shape for our own purposes.
Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and
economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of this or that individual
writer. But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and
producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so on indefinitely. A man may
take to drink because he feels himself to be a failure, and then fail all the more
completely because he drinks. It is rather the same thing that is happening to the
English language. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish,
but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish
thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible.
Politics and the English Language, George Orwell
 Analysis

In this extract you can see:

 Orwell uses first person plural pronouns – “we” and “our” – this
makes the reader feel that the state of the English language is
their problem too.
 The vocabulary is complex and polysyllabic. This reinforces his
idea that we should not be lazy with words – we should make
more effort to use and understand a wide range of vocabulary.
 The verbs “collapse” and “struggle” imply how difficult the fight
against falling standards is.
 Similes “like preferring candles to electric lights or hansom cabs
to aeroplanes” admit the benefits of progress, that everything
changes – sometimes for the better.
 However, the metaphor of the drunken man – drinking due to
failure, then failing due to drinking – suggests that the
“slovenliness” of our language will make us more “foolish” so
that we can never put things right.
 The final short sentence, “The point is that the process is
reversible” gives the reader hope that they can improve their
English language - if they make the effort to. This is the purpose
of the essay – to argue that we must make that effort.
 Travel writing

Travel writing tells the reader about visiting different places.

A tourist guide - or a more personal account of a journey -
will:
 describe places
 inform about cultures
 explain how to do things
They might also:
 persuade the reader to visit
 advise the reader what to do
 entertain the reader with a creative style of writing
Guides are usually written in the third person whereas
personal accounts tend to be first person.

Travel writing can take many forms, such as newspaper

articles, essays, journals, blogs and autobiography. It can
also be written as a book, telling a longer narrative
about a journey or place. Many types of travel writing
contain the features of literary non-fiction.
Example
Bill Bryson is a famous travel writer. This extract is the opening
paragraph from his book The Lost Continent (1989).

When you come from Des Moines you either accept the fact without
question and settle down with a local girl named Bobbi and get a
job at the Firestone factory and live there forever and ever, or you
spend your adolescence moaning at length about what a dump it is
and how you can't wait to get out, and then you settle down with a
local girl named Bobbi and get a job at the Firestone factory and live
there forever and ever.
The Lost Continent, Bill Bryson
Analysis
In this extract:
 Bryson begins with humour, “Somebody had to.” This amuses the reader and creates a
chatty tone. It raises the question ‘Why does he sound negative?’ – intriguing the reader.
 Using the first person forms an immediate connection between Bryson and his reader. He
builds on this by opening with an anecdote to entertain them.
 A rule of three summarises “your” future, “settle down with a local girl”, “get a job at the
Firestone factory” and “live there forever and ever”. This makes life in Des Moines sound
predictable and limited.
 The contrasting options “accept the fact without question” or “spend your adolescence
moaning at length” are both awful!
 Describing Des Moines as a “dump” makes the reader imagine a rubbish dump or an ugly
place.
 Bryson ends the extract with a repetition of your first “option” - to “settle, get a job and live
there forever and ever” – this implies that you have no choice really and cannot escape Des
Moines.
 This extract is likely to entertain the reader but unlikely to persuade them to visit Des
Moines!