CHAPTER 9

SPECIAL
SENSES
SPECIAL SENSES

CHEMIC
AL
SENSES Gustation Olfaction

EYE & EAR &

VISION HEARING
 LESSON OUTCOMES
Students should be able to:
1)Describe sense of taste
2)Describe sense of smell
3)Describe the structure and function of different part of the
eyes.
4)Discuss on the photoreception and visual accommodation.
5)Describe and explain the homeostatic imbalance in vision.
6)Describe the structure and function of the ear.
7)Explain the mechanism of hearing.
8)Describe the mechanism of balancing.
CHEMICAL SENSES
▪ The gustation (taste) and olfaction (smell)
and both dependent on chemoreceptors
that detects specific chemicals (dissolve in
aqueous solution) in the environment.
■Taste receptor excited by food chemicals
dissolve in saliva
■Smell receptor excited by airborne chemicals
that dissolve in fluid coating nasal membrane.
GUSTATION (TASTE)
▪ Gustation receptor cells – modified
epithelial cells called taste buds.
▪ Most taste buds : papillae.
▪ Two cells of taste buds:
i. Taste/gustatory cells
🢭 Gustatory hairs project from the tips of
taste cells and extend through taste
pores.
ii. Basal cells
🢭 Act as stem cell, dividing & differentiating
into new gustatory cells.
5 taste sensations
Taste
sensatio Substance Transduction Taste map
ns
Sweetness – sugar bind to protein
Organic substance,
receptor 🡪 triggers signal transduction Tip of the
Sweet saccharin, alcohols,
pathway 🡪 results in depolarization. tongue
amino acids
Acids; dissolve H+
Sour in solution Chemoreceptors detect saltiness (Na+ Side
ions) or sourness (H ions) have
+

channels in their plasma membrane

Inorganic salts; eg:
Salty table salt
through which these ions can diffuse 🡪 Side
Influx of H and Na depolarizes the cell.
+ +

Substance eg: quinine bind to K+

Alkaloids and some
channel and closes them 🡪 resulting in Back of the
Bitter nonalakaloids
decrease of membrane permeability to tongue
substance
K+ 🡪 depolarizes the cell

Binding of glutamate to Na+ channel.

Amino acids
When glutamate is bound, Na+ channel To the
Umami glutamate and
open 🡪 Na+ diffuses into the cell 🡪 cell pharynx
aspartate
depolarize
FLAVOR TEST
 * The nose knows taste
*
▪ What's going on? Basically, when your nose isn't closed up, the
aroma of the food from your mouth is going through the back of the
throat to the nose to give you the full flavor experience.
▪ When you block off the front part of your nose, it's like closing off the
end of a hose and the water is no longer flowing.
 OLFACTION (SMELL)
a) Olfactory receptor cells – neuron that lines the upper
portion of nasal cavity and sends impulse directly to
olfactory bulb of the brain.
b) The receptive ends of the cells contain cilia that
extend into mucous layer coating the nasal cavity.
 OLFACTION
c) Odorant diffuse  binds to specific protein called
odorant receptors (ORs) on the plasma membrane
of the cilia  depolarize the membrane  receptor
cells generate action potentials.
THE EYE AND
VISION
Structures of the Eye
 Structures of the Eye
▪ Spherical, fluid-filled structure enclosed by 3
layers :
1. Outermost : Sclera, cornea, pupil and lens
2. Middle: Choroid, ciliary body and iris
3. Innermost : Retina, Optic nerve and vitreous humor
 Cornea

1) Outermost
 outer layer of connective
tissue.
 forms the visible white part of
the eye.
 anteriorly, the outer layer
consist of transparent cornea.
2) Middle
 Middle layer underneath
the sclera is choroid
(highly pigmented) –
contain blood vessels
that nourish the retina.
 anteriorly, become
specialized forming
ciliary body and iris.

3) Innermost
 outer pigmented
layer and an inner
nervous tissue layer
 contain
photoreceptors: rods
& cones.
 1) Pupil and Iris
▪ The iris (visible ring like structure) can increase
or decrease the diameter of the pupil (round
opening in the center of the iris).
 Constriction: contraction of circular muscles via
parasympathetic stimulation  pupil constrict
 Dilation: contraction of radial muscles via
sympathetic stimulation  pupil dilate
2) Lens
▪ Suspended from suspensory ligaments
▪ Attached to muscles called ciliary bodies
 3) Fluid-filled cavities
▪ 2 fluid-filled cavities separated by lens.
▪ Cavities are transparent to permit light pass through.
▪ The fluid-filled cavities are :
 vitreous humor
 aqueous humor

▪ a) Vitreous humor
▪ semi fluid jellylike
substance.
▪ to maintain the spherical
shape of the eyeball
▪ Transmit light
 b) Aqueous Humor
▪ Fills anterior chamber between cornea and lens.
▪ Contain a clear, watery fluid.
▪ Secreted by ciliary bodies to provide nourishment to lens
and cornea
▪ Drains into Canal of Schlemm.
▪ Inadequate drainage : glaucoma -
▪ a chronic eye disease caused by
damage to the optic nerve,
which leads to visual field loss.
An abnormality in the eye's
drainage system can cause fluid
to build up, leading to excessive
pressure that causes damage to
the optic nerve.
b) Aqueous Humor
 4) Retina
▪ Neuron axons in the retina are gathered at a
point called the optic disc (blind spot).
▪ Blind spot – lack of photoreceptor
▪ Blood vessels also enter here.
 As light passes into the eye
▪ Light passes through the cornea and into the aqueous
humor of the eye.
▪ Next, it passes through the pupil, which can change shape
to allow more or less light in.
▪ Then it passes through the lens, which can change shape
to focus the image.
▪ Travel through vitreous humor. Finally, it hits the retina,
where photoreceptors are found.

Pathway of light:
Cornea  aqueous humor 
pupil  lens  vitreous humor
 retina
Structures of the Eye
 RETINA &
PHOTOTRANSDUCTION
 PHOTOTRANSDUCTION

▪ Phototransduction – process of converting light

stimuli into electrical signals.

Phototransduction: Light stimuli Electrical signal

▪ Photo-pigment undergo chemical alteration

when activated by light – receptor potential in
photoreceptor – generate action potential in
ganglion cells transmit info to brain.
 Layers of the Retina

▪ Photoreceptors (rods and cones)

are in the inner layer (light-
sensitive ends face the choroid)
▪ These synapse on a middle layer
of bipolar cells, which synapse on
the outer layer of ganglion cells.
▪ (Ganglion cells join to form the optic
nerve, which leaves the retina slightly off
center)
 Rods and Cones
▪ Consist of:
 Outer segment; full of
flattened discs with photo-
pigment molecules
 Inner segment; houses the
cells metabolic machinery
Rods
▪ Allow black-and-white vision in low light.
▪ Numerous, far sensitive to light, but do not provide
sharp images or color vision.
▪ Contain the pigment rhodopsin,
▪ Absorption causes rhodopsin to dissociate into
retinaldehyde and opsin.

Rhodopsin  Retinaldehyde (retinal) + opsin

 Called the bleaching reaction.

Cones
▪Receptor for bright light and provide high-
resolution color vision
▪ Light pass through the ganglion and bipolar layers
before reaching the photoreceptors in all areas in
retina except fovea (most distinct vision).
▪ Fovea, located in the exact center of the retina,
cones found here.
 Bipolar and ganglion cells layers a pulled aside so light
strikes the photoreceptors directly.
Layers of the Retina
 Dark Adaptation

▪ When a person enters a dark room after being in

the light, there are fewer photopigments in the
rods and cones.

▪ After about 20 minutes, more visual pigments are

produced, and the person’s eyes adapt to the
dark.
Blue and black? White and gold?
LIGHT REFLECTION
 The Eyes
▪ Transduce light energy into nerve impulses
 Only a limited part of the electromagnetic spectrum can
excite photoreceptors.
▪ Light waves diverge in all direction from every point
of a light source.

▪ Divergent light rays reaching the eye must be bent

inward to be focused.
▪ The direction of light changes if strikes the surface of
new medium at any angle other than perpendicular.
 Light Refraction
▪ When light passes from one medium to another, it
bends.
 Curvature at the point of refraction can also bend light.
 Changing the curvature of the lens allows fine control
of focus.
 The image is flipped upside
down in this process.
Light Refraction
 Light Refraction
Different lens:
▪Convex – curves outward, converge light rays
▪Concave – curves inward, diverge light rays
 PHYSIOLOGY OF LENS
▪ Requires adaptation changes called
“accommodation” – the ability of the lens to keep an
object focused on the retina as the distance
between the eye and the object moves.
▪ a process that increases the refractory power of the
lens.

Accommodation:
Ability of eye to change its
focus from distant to near
objects (vice versa)  by
changing lens shape
 PHYSIOLOGY OF LENS
Focusing on near objects
 Ciliary muscles contract, pulling border of choroid toward the
lens
 Suspensory ligaments relax
 Lens thicker, rounder  focusing on near object
 more curvature-more bending of light
▪ Convergence of the eyeballs
 Focusing on distant object
 Ciliary muscle : relax
 Pulls on the suspensory ligaments
 Causing the lens to thin - not so curvature (less
bending light)
■This is good for distant vision
Lens
Accommodation
 HOMEOSTATIC
IMBALANCES

(REFRACTIVE PROBLEMS)
 1) Myopia
▪ Nearsightedness
▪ Distant images are brought to a point of focus in
front of the retina – image appear blurry.

** Emmetropia – normal eye vision

 1) Myopia
▪ Near images is brought into focus on retina without
accommodation.
▪ Has better near vision than far vision.
 Often due to an elongated eyeball
 Corrected by concave lenses in eyeglasses
2) Hyperopia
▪ Farsightedness
▪ Near images are focused behind retina even
with accommodation - blurry.
▪ Has better far vision than near vision.
2) Hyperopia
 Often due to a short eyeball
 Corrected by lenses that are convex
 3) Astigmatism
▪ Irregular shape of cornea or lens
▪ Asymmetry between the cornea
and lens (unequal curvatures in
different parts of the cornea)
 Corrected by cylindrical lenses
 EAR
Hearing and
Equilibrium
 EAR STRUCTURE
▪ Three parts :
The external, the middle & the inner ear.
 1) External / Outer ear
▪ Sound waves are funneled by the pinna (or
auricle) into the external auditory meatus, which
channels them to the tympanic membrane
(eardrum).
External ear – localization of sound
A) Pinna
▪Skin-covered flap of cartilage.
▪Collects sound waves and channels down to ear canal.

B) External auditory meatus / ear canal

▪ Guarded by fine hairs.
▪ Skin lining the canal contain modified
sweat glands produce cerumen
(earwax), sticky secretion that traps
fine foreign particles.
▪ Earwax & hairs – help prevent airborne
particles from reaching inner portions.
▪ C) Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
▪ The tympanic membrane is also called the eardrum. It separates
the outer ear from the middle ear. When sound waves reach the
tympanic membrane they cause it to vibrate. The vibrations are
then transferred to the tiny bones in the middle ear.
The Ear
 2) Middle ear
▪ Cavity between the tympanic membrane and the
bony wall of two openings.
▪ Contains three bones called a) ossicles:
 Malleus  incus  stapes
 Vibrations are transmitted & amplified along the bones.
 The stapes is attached to the b) oval window, which
transfers the vibrations into the inner ear.
▪ As you ascend in an airplane or you drive up a
tall mountain, you may fell discomfort in your
ears or ear fullness sensation and also a
decrease in hearing ability.
▪ How exactly this happens?
▪ What would you do?
 ▪ As you ascend in an airplane, the air
pressure decreases, the air trapped in
your inner ear will cause your eardrums
to push outward.
▪ This expansion causes the discomfort you
feel before your ears "pop”.
 2) Middle ear
c) Eustachian tube
▪Link middle ear to
nasopharynx (superiormost
part of throat)
▪Normally, tube is flattened
and closed, but swallowing
and yawning open the tube.
Structures of the Middle
Ear
 3) Inner ear / labyrinth
Located far behind the eye socket
▪ Secure site to house the delicate receptor machinery.
▪ 3 regions: Vestibule, Semicircular canal & Cochlea

▪ A) Vestibule - house the equilibrium receptor region

that respond the pull of gravity and report changes in
head position.
▪ B) Semicircular canal - houses an equilibrium receptor
region called crista ampullaris which respond to
angular (rotational) movements of the head.
▪ C) The cochlea: receptors for conversion
of sound waves into nerve impulses
(hearing).
3) Inner ear
c) The Cochlea: Bony Labyrinth
▪ The cochlea is the hearing part of the inner ear.
▪ Shaped like a snail and filled with fluid.
▪ Three chambers (fluid-filled):
1. Scala vestibuli : upper chamber (contain perilymph)
2. Scala media : membranous labyrinth (contain
endolymph), bear Organ of Corti : sense organ for
hearing
3. Scala tympani : lower bony chamber (contain
perilymph.
The Cochlea: Membranous Labyrinth
 Organ of Corti (spiral organ)
▪ Cells inside cochlear duct highly modified to form
spiral organ (Organ of Corti).
▪ Contains supporting epithelial
cells and specialized sensory
cells (Hair cells).
▪ Sensory hair cells are located
on the basilar membrane of
the scala media.
 Organ of Corti (spiral organ)
▪ * Sensory hair cells :
 Inner hair cells: form one row
that runs the length of the basilar
membrane. Each is innervated by
10−20 sensory neurons.
 Outer hair cells: arranged in
rows. They are innervated by
motor neurons that make them
shorten when depolarized and
elongate when hyperpolarized.
 *Sensory Hair Cells
▪ Modified epithelial cells with 20−50 hairlike
extensions called stereocilia (not true cilia) and one
kinocilium (true cilium)
PHYSIOLOGY OF
HEARING
 *Sound Transmission
▪ Hearing occur when auditory area of temporal
lobe cortex is stimulated.
▪ Before this can happen, sound waves must be
propagated through air, membranes, bones and
fluids to stimulate receptor cells in spiral organ.
Transmission of sound to the internal ear.
■Airborne sound enter the auditory meatus  hit
the tympanic membrane  sets the vibration at the
same frequency  the motion is amplified and
transferred to the oval window by ossicle lever
system.
 Sound Transmission
▪ Vibrations from the oval window of the middle ear
displace perilymph in the scala vestibuli.
▪ Vibrations pass into the cochlear duct through the
endolymph.
▪ Vibrations pass into perilymph of the scala tympani.
▪ Vibrations leave
the inner ear via
the round
window.
 Excitation of Sensory Hair Cells
▪ Hair cells alternately bend upon basilar
membrane vibration.
▪ When sound waves enter the scala media, the
tectorial membrane vibrates, bending stereocilia.
▪ Bending of inner hair cells open mechanically
gated channel.
▪ Lead to ion movement  Action potential
 Opens K+ channels
 K+ rushes in, depolarizing the cell
 Sound Transmission
▪ Where along the cochlear duct sound waves are
transmitted depends on the frequency of the sound.
 Low-frequency (below 20Hz): travel further down
the spiral of the cochlea. Creates pressure wave that
take the complete route of scala vestibuli  scala
tympani  and back toward round window.
 High frequency: below 20,000Hz - creates shorter
pressure wave and transmitted through perilymph
to round window.
Sound Frequency and
Hearing
*Neural Pathways
*Hearing Impairment

▪ A) Conduction deafness : Sound

waves are not conducted from the
outer to the inner ear.
 May be due to a buildup of earwax, too
much fluid in the middle ear, damage to
the eardrum, or overgrowth of bone in the
middle ear
 Impairs hearing of all sound frequencies
 Can be helped by hearing aids
Hearing Impairment

▪ B) Sensorineural/perceptive
deafness: Nerve impulses are not
conducted from the cochlea to the
auditory cortex.
 May be due to damaged hair cells (from
loud noises)
 May only impair hearing of particular
sound frequencies and not others
 May be helped by cochlear implants
 EAR
(Equilibrium)
 Organ of balance

Vestibule Evaluating position of head

• Saccule relative to gravity.
• Utricle Monitor linear acceleration.

Semicircular canal Monitor changes in head

rotation
 Equilibrium and orientation
▪ Equilibrium receptor located in:
 semicircular canal Vestibular apparatus
 vestibules
▪ Divided into 2 functional arms:
 Vestibule: monitor linear acceleration & position of
head
 Semicircular canal: monitor changes in head
rotation.
▪ Consists of:
 Otolith organs : Utricle and saccule
 Semicircular canal
 Utricle and Saccule
▪ Provide information about linear acceleration:
 Utricle: horizontal
 Saccule: vertical
▪ Specialized
epithelium called
the macula houses
hair cells.
 Stereocilia are
embedded in a
gelatinous otolithic
membrane.
Otolithic
Organ
 Semicircular Canals
▪ 3 semicircular canals at right angles.
▪ Project along three planes to detect rotation:
 Each canal contains a semicircular duct filled with
endolymph.
 Base of each duct is expanded into an ampulla.
 Hair cells are embedded in the crista ampullaris, with
stereocilia stuck into a gelatinous cupula.
▪ Rotation makes the endolymph circulate, pushing the cupula and bending the
hair cells.
 SELF-CHECK
The area containing the highest concentration of cones is
A. fovea centralis.
B. optic disc.
C. macula lutea.
D. iris.

Which of the following would be recognized by an

chemoreceptor?
A. Smell.
B. Balance.
C. Hearing.
D. Bladder expansion.
What nerve in the brain receives impulses from stimuli picked up
by receptors in the nose?
▪A. Taste buds.
▪B. Olfactory nerve.
▪C. Cochlea.
▪D. Auditory canal.

The following are the cell type, present in the retina except
▪A. amacrine cells.
▪B. bipolar cells.
▪C. vestibular cells.
▪D. rods and cones.

Cones are responsible for

▪A. night vision.
▪B. the detection of movement.
▪C. the perception of fine detail.
▪D. peripheral vision.
The shape of the lens is controlled by the
▪A. iris.
▪B. pupillary constrictor muscles.
▪C. pupillary dilator muscles.
▪D. ciliary muscles.

Gustatory receptors are located

▪A. on the surface of the tongue.
▪B. in the eye.
▪C. in the ear.
▪D. in the nose.

Two senses that detect changes in chemical concentrations are

▪A. touch and pressure.
▪B. sight and smell.
▪C. hearing and balance.
▪D. taste and smell.
The end