UNIT-5

• MICROPROCESSORS

• PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS

• CASE STUDIES OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS

 Microprocessors
• Control
• If we take a simple control problem, e.g. the
sequencing of the red, amber, green lights at a traffic
crossing, then it should be possible to solve it by an
electronic control system involving combinational and
sequential logic integrated circuits.
• However, with a more complex situation there might
be many more variables to control in a more complex
control sequence. The simplest solution now becomes
not one of constructing a system based on hard-wired
connections of combinational and sequential logic
integrated circuits but of using a microprocessor and
using software to make the ‘interconnections’.
• The microprocessor systems that we are
concerned with in this book are for use as control
systems and are termed embedded
microprocessors.
• This is because such a microprocessor is
dedicated to controlling a specific function and is
self-starting, requiring no human intervention
and completely self-contained with its own
operating program.
 Microprocessors Systems
• Systems using microprocessors basically have three
parts: a central processing unit (CPU) to recognize and
carry out program instructions (this is the part which
uses the microprocessor), input and output interfaces
to handle communications between the microprocessor
and the outside world (the term port is used for the
interface), and memory to hold the program instructions
and data illustrates the general arrangement of a
microprocessor system.
• Microprocessors which have memory and various
input/output arrangements all on the same chip are called
microcontrollers.
 Microprocessors Systems

Figure : General form of a microprocessor system and its buses. All the components share the
same data bus and address bus. This arrangement is known as the von Neumann architecture.
Intel 1st 4004 Microprocessor
 Buses

• Digital signals move from one section to another along

paths called Buses.
• A bus, in the physical sense, is just a number of parallel
conductors along which electrical signals can be carried
and are paths which can be shared by all the chips in the
system.
• Typically a bus has 16 or 32 parallel connections so that
each can carry 1 bit of a data word simultaneously.
• There are three forms of bus in a microprocessor system.
 Data Bus
 Address Bus
 Control Bus
What is Bus?
Data bus : The data associated with the processing function of the
CPU is carried by the data bus. Thus, it is used to transport a word to
or from the CPU and the memory or the input/output interfaces. Each
wire in the bus carries a binary signal, i.e. a 0 or a 1.

Address bus : The address bus carries signals which indicate where
data is to be found and so the selection of certain memory locations or
input or output ports. Each storage location within a memory device
has a unique identification, termed its address, so that the system is
able to select a particular instruction or data item in the memory. Each
input/output interface also has an address. When a particular address
is selected by its address being placed on the address bus, only that
location is open to the communications from the CPU. The CPU is
thus able to communicate with just one location at a time.
• Control bus : The signals relating to control actions are
carried by the control bus. For example, it is necessary for the
microprocessor to inform memory devices whether they are to
read data from an input device or write data to an output
device. The term READ is used for receiving a signal and
WRITE for sending a signal. The control bus is also used to
carry the system clock signals, these are to synchronise all the
actions of the microprocessor system. The clock is a crystal-
controlled oscillator and produces pulses at regular intervals.
 The Microprocessors
• The microprocessor is generally referred to as the central
processing unit (CPU). It is that part of the processor system
which processes the data fetching instructions from memory,
decoding them and executing them.

• The internal structure the term architecture is used –

depends on the microprocessor concerned.

• The following are the functions of the constituent parts of a

microprocessor.
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
• Registers
• Control unit
Figure: General internal architecture of a microprocessor.
 Registers
• There are a number of types of register, the number, size
and types of registers varying from one microprocessor
to another. The following are common types of registers.

 Accumulator register
 Status register
 Program counter register (PC) or Instruction pointer (IP)
 Memory address register (MAR)
 Instruction register (IR)
 General purpose register
 Stack point register (SP)
 Memory
• The memory unit in a microprocessor system stores
binary data and takes the form of one or more integrated
circuits. The data may be program instruction codes or
numbers being operated on.
• The size of the memory is determined by the number of
wires in the address bus.
• The memory elements in a unit consist essentially of
large numbers of storage cells with each cell capable of
storing either a 0 or a 1 bit.
• The storage cells are grouped in locations with each
location capable of storing one word. In order to access
the stored word, each location is identified by a unique
address.
• Thus with a 4-bit address bus we can have 16
different addresses with each, perhaps, capable
of storing 1 byte, i.e. a group of 8 bits.

• The size of a memory unit is specified in terms of

the number of storage locations available; 1K is
210 5 1024 locations and thus a 4K memory has
4096 locations.
 Memory

• There are a number of forms of memory unit.

 ROM (Read only memory)

 PROM (programmable ROM)
 EPROM (erasable and programmable ROM)
 EEPROM (Electrically erasable PROM)
 RAM (Random access memory)
 ROM (Read only memory)

• For data that is stored permanently a memory

device called a read-only memory (ROM) is used.
• ROMs are programmed with the required
contents during the manufacture of the
integrated circuit.
• No data can then be written into this memory
while the memory chip is in the computer.
 ROM (Read only memory)
• They do not lose their
memory when power is
removed. Figure shows the
pin connections of a typical
ROM chip which is capable of
storing 1K * 8 bits.
• It's used to store the start-up
instructions for a computer,
also known as the firmware.
Most modern
computers use flash-
based ROM. It is part of the
BIOS chip, which is located on
the motherboard
Figure: ROM chip
 PROM
• The term programmable ROM (PROM) is used for
ROM chips that can be programmed by the user.

• Initially every memory cell has a fusible link which

keeps its memory at 0. The 0 is permanently
changed to 1 by sending a current through the fuse
to open it permanently.
• Once the fusible link has been opened the data is
permanently stored in the memory and cannot be
further changed.
 EPROM
• The term erasable and programmable ROM
(EPROM) is used for ROMs that can be programmed
and their contents altered.
• A typical EPROM chip contains a series of small
electronic circuits, cells, which can store charge.
• The program is stored by applying voltages to the
integrated circuit connection pins and producing a
pattern of charged and uncharged cells.
 EEPROM
• Electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) is
similar to EPROM.
• Erasure is by applying a relatively high voltage
rather than using ultraviolet light.
 RAM
• Temporary data, i.e.
data currently being
operated on, is stored
in a read/write
memory referred to as
a random-access
memory (RAM).
• Such a memory can be
read or written to.
Figure shows the
typical pin connections
for a 1K * 8-bit RAM
chip. Figure: RAM chip
• Computer memory or random access memory
(RAM) is your system's short-term data
storage; it stores the information your
computer is actively using so that it can be
accessed quickly. The more programs your
system is running, the more memory you'll
need.
 Input/output
• The input/output operation is defined as the
transfer of data between the microprocessor and
the external world. The term peripheral devices is
used for pieces of equipment that exchange data
with a microprocessor system.
Examples of systems

Figure : Intel 8085A system

 Microcontrollers
• For a microprocessor to give a system which can be
used for control, additional chips are necessary,
e.g. memory devices for program and data storage
and input/output ports to allow it to communicate
with the external world and receive signals from it.
• The microcontroller is the integration of a
microprocessor with memory and input/output
interfaces, and other peripherals such as timers, on
a single chip. Figure shows the general block
diagram of a microcontroller.
• The general microcontroller has pins for external
connections of inputs and outputs, power, clock
and control signals.
• The pins for the inputs and outputs are grouped
into units called input/output ports.
• Usually such ports have eight lines in order to be
able to transfer an 8-bit word of data.
Figure: Block diagram of a microcontroller
 INTEL 8051
• Another common family of microcontrollers is the
Intel 8051, Figure showing the pin connections
and the architecture. The 8051 has four parallel
input/output ports, ports 0, 1, 2 and 3. Ports 0, 2
and 3 also have alternative functions.
• The 8051AH version has 4K ROM bytes, 128-byte
RAM, two timers and interrupt control for five
interrupt sources.
INTEL 8051